Abstract
Parents and caregivers play a special role in HIV prevention efforts for youth. Parents are able to reach youth early and in a non-controversial way. Parents can engage in continuous discussions about sex and sexuality, HIV, substance use, and sexual risk prevention. Having frequent contact with their children allows them to provide sequential and time-sensitive information that is immediately responsive to the child’s questions and anticipated needs. Parents and caregivers help youth shape and form healthy attitudes and behaviors, and support youth with supervision, positive reinforcement and skills building. Given the proper tools to harness their parenting and communication skills, parents and caregivers are a force to be reckoned with. There is a growing literature that highlights the important role parents and caregivers play in addressing teen substance use and sexual risk behavior; however, evidence-based interventions to strengthen parents’ role in HIV prevention or even in reproductive health promotion are rare and not widely disseminated. This chapter describes two evidence-based interventions, Parents Matter! and the Parent/Preadolescent Training for HIV (PATH) Prevention. Both are based on research addressing the need to intervene early, child–parent communication, and risk reduction science and strategies. Data on outcomes and description of the dissemination of these interventions are presented. Among the intriguing findings are that both projects were easily accepted by communities, both led to reported risk reduction or intention to reduce risk, and that improved communication may have generalized to create positive outcomes for risks other than those associated with HIV. Each intervention has found new audiences, through formal and informal pathways. A continuing challenge is to maintain and update interventions as new risks emerge and as new populations are at risk as the HIV epidemic changes.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
The US census defines households raising their “own children” by birth, marriage, or adoption as family, and others as “non-family,” including extended family who have not adopted. The National Institute of Mental Health Consortium of Family Researchers, in contrast, has consistently defined the family as a network of mutual commitment.
References
Ackard DM, Neumark-Sztainer D. Health care information sources for adolescents: age and gender differences on use, concerns, and needs. J Adolesc Health. 2001;29:170–6.
Angera JJ, Brookins-Fisher J, Inungu JN. An investigation of parent/child communication about sexuality. Am J Sex Edu. 2008;32(2):165–81.
Bauman LJ, Draimin B, Levine C, Hudis J. Who will care for me? Planning the future care and custody of children orphaned by HIV/AIDS. In: Pequegnat W, Szapocznik J, editors. Working with children in the era of HIV/AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2000. p. 189–212.
Blane D, Brunner E, Wilkinson R, editors. Health and social organization: towards a health policy for the twenty-first century. New York: Routledge; 1996.
Botvin GJ, Baker E, Dusenbury L, Tortu S, Botvin EM. Preventing adolescent drug abuse through a multimodal cognitive-behavioral approach: results of a 3-year study. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1990;58:437–46.
Brown LK, Nassau JH, Vincent BJ. Differences in AIDS knowledge and attitudes by grade level. J Health Educ. 1990;60(6):270–5.
Brown LK, Reynolds LA, Brenman AJ. Out of focus: children’s conceptions of AIDS. J Health Educ. 1994;25(4):204–8.
Browning CR, Leventhal T, Brooks-Gunn J. Neighborhood context and racial differences in early adolescent sexual activity. Demography. 2004;41(4):697–720.
Butler T, Miller K, Holtgrave D, Forehand R, Long N. Stages of sexual readiness and six-month stage progression among African American pre-teens. J Sex Res. 2006;43(4):378–86.
Campbell DT. Regression artifacts in time-series and longitudinal data. Eval Prog Plann. 1996;19(4):377–89.
Campbell DT, Krauss B. Speculations on quasi-experimental designs for AIDS research. Eval Pract. 1991;15(3):291–8. Duplicated paper for the July 1991 Rockville, MD Conference on AIDS survey research methodology, Ronald Kessler, Organizer. Cited in Campbell DT (1994). Retrospective and prospective on program impact assessment.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Subpopulation estimates from the HIV incidence surveillance System – United States, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008a;57(36):985–9, Atlanta, GA: CDC.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Slide set: HIV/AIDS surveillance in adolescents and young adults (through 2006). [PowerPoint slides]. Available via Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Web site: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/slides/adolescents/index.htm (2008b). Cited 1 Jan 2010.
Clawson CL, Reese-Weber M. The amount and timing of parent adolescent sexual communication as predictors of late adolescent sexual risk taking behaviors. J Sex Res. 2003;40:256–65.
Collins WA, Maccoby EE, Steinberg L, Hetherington EM, Bornstein MH. Contemporary research on parenting: the case for nature and nurture. Am Psychol. 2000;55:218–32.
Conger R, Lorenz F, Simons R, Whitbeck L. Value socialization and peer group affiliation among early adolescents. J Early Adolesc. 1989;9(4):436–53.
Darling CA, Hicks MW. Recycling parental sexual messages. J Sex Marital Ther. 1982;9(3):233–43.
DiClemente RJ, Crosby RA, Wingood GM. Enhancing STD/HIV prevention among adolescents: the importance of parental monitoring. Minerva Pediatr. 2002;54:171–7.
DiClemente RJ, Crosby RA, Salazar LF. Family influences on adolescents’ sexual health: synthesis of the research and implications for clinical practice. Curr Pediatr Rev. 2006;2:369–73.
DiClemente RJ, Salazar LF, Crosby RA. A review of STD/HIV preventive interventions for adolescents: sustaining effects using an ecological approach. J Pediatr Psychol. 2007;32(8):888–906.
DiIorio C, Pluhar E, Belcher L. Parent-child communication about sexuality: a review of the literature from 1980–2002. J HIV/AIDS Prev Educ Adolesc Child. 2003;5(3/4):7–32.
Dilorio C, Resnicow K, Denzmore P, Rogers-Tillman G, Wang DT, Dudley WN, et al. Keeping it R.E.A.L! A mother-adolescent HIV prevention program. In: Pequegnat W, Szapocznik J, editors. Working with children in the era of HIV/AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2000. p. 113–54.
Dilorio C, McCarty F, Resnicow K, Lehr S, Denzmore P. REAL men: a group-randomized trial of an HIV prevention intervention for adolescent boys. Am J Public Health. 2007;97:1084–9.
Dittus PJ, Jaccard J, Gordon VV. Direct and nondirect communication of maternal beliefs to adolescents: adolescent motivation for premarital sexual activity. J Appl Soc Psychol. 1999;29:1927–63.
Dittus PJ, Miller KS, Kotchick BA, Forehand R. Why parents matter: the conceptual basis for a community-based HIV prevention program for parents of African American youth. J Child Fam Stud. 2004;13(1):5–20.
Donenberg GR, Wilson HW, Emerson E, Bryant FB. Holding the line with a watchful eye: the impact of perceived parental permissiveness and parental monitoring on risky sexual behavior among adolescents in psychiatric care. AIDS Educ Prev. 2002;14(2):138–57.
Dutra R, Miller KS, Forehand R. The process and content of sexual communication with adolescents in two-parent families: associations with sexual risk-taking behavior. AIDS Behav. 1999;3(1):59–66.
Eaton DK, Kann LJ, Kinchen S, Shanklin S, Ross J, Hawkins J, et al. Youth risk behavior surveillance – United States, 2007. MMRW Surveill Summ. 2008;57(4):1–130.
Eisenberg ME, Bearinger LH, Sleving RE, Swain C, Resnick MD. Parents’ beliefs about condoms and oral contraceptives: are they medically accurate? Perspect Sex Reprod Health. 2004;36(2):50–7.
Eisenberg ME, Sieving RE, Bearinger LH, Swain C, Resnick MD. Parents’ communication with adolescents about sexual behavior: a missed opportunity for prevention? J Youth Adolesc. 2006;35:893–902.
Fishbein M. Toward an understanding of the media’s influence on adolescent sexual behavior. Presented in Grand Rounds at the HIV center for clinical and behavioral studies, Columbia University, New York, NY; 2009 Feb.
Fisher TD. Family foundations of sexuality. In: Harvey JH, Wenzel A, Sprecher S, editors. The handbook of sexuality in close relationships. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 2004. p. 385–409.
Fletcher AC, Steinberg L, Williams-Wheeler M. Parental influences on adolescent problem behavior: revisiting Stattin and Kerr. Child Dev. 2004;75(3):781–96.
Floyd HH, South DR. Dilemma of youth: the choice of parents or peers as a frame of reference for behavior. J Marriage Fam. 1972;34(4):627–34.
Forehand R, Armistead L, Long N, Wyckoff SC, Kotchick BA, Whitaker D, et al. Efficacy of a family-based, youth sexual risk prevention program for parents of African American pre-adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161(12):1123–9.
Forhan S. Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections and bacterial vaginosis among female adolescents in the United States: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2004. Presented at the 2008 National STD prevention Conference, Chicago, IL; 2008 Mar.
Forste R, Haas DW. The transition of adolescent males to first sexual intercourse: anticipated or delayed? Perspect Sex Reprod Health. 2002;34(4):184–90.
Freidin E, Hodorek S, Krauss B, Godfrey C. What they walked away with: what children say they learn from HIV-related conversations with their parents. Poster presented at the national institute of mental health international research conference on the role of families in preventing and adapting to HIV/AIDS, Brooklyn, NY; 2005 July.
Graber JA, Brooks-Gunn J, Peterson AC, editors. Transitions through adolescence: interpersonal domains and context. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1996.
Hagan JF, Shaw JS, Duncan P, editors. Bright futures: guidelines for health supervision of infants, children, and adolescents. 3rd ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2008.
Hawkins JD, Lishner DM, Catalano RF. Childhood predictors and the prevention of adolescent substance abuse. In: Jones CL, Battjes RJ, editors. Etiology of drug abuse: implications for prevention. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse [NIDA]; 1985. p. 75–125, NIDA Research Monograph 56.
Heisler JM. Family communication about sex: parents and college-aged offspring recall discussion topics, satisfaction, and parental involvement. J Fam Commun. 2005;5(4):295–312.
Hogan MJ. Parents and other adults: models and monitors of healthy media habits. In: Singer D, Singer J, editors. Handbook of children and the media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2001. p. 663–79.
Holcomb TF. Fourth grader’s attitudes towards AIDS issues: a concern for the elementary school counselor. Elem School Guid Couns. 1990;25:83–90.
Holmbeck GN. A model of family relational transformations during the transition to adolescence: parent-adolescent conflict and adaptation. In: Graber JA, Brooks-Gunn J, Peterson AC, editors. Transitions through adolescence: interpersonal domains and context. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1996. p. 167–99.
Jemmott LS, Outlaw FH, Jemmott III JB, Brown EJ, Howard M, Hopkins B. Strengthening the bond: the mother-son health promotion program. In: Pequegnat W, Szapocznik J, editors. Working with children in the era of HIV/AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2000. p. 155–88.
Kandel DB. On processes of peer influences in adolescent drug use: a developmental perspective. Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse. 1985;4(3–4):139–63.
Kann L, Telijohann SK, Wooley SF. Health education: results from the school health policies and programs study 2006. J School Health. 2007;77(8):408–34.
Karofsky PS, Zeng L, Kosorok MR. Relationship between adolescent-parental communication and initiation of first intercourse by adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2000;28:41–5.
Kerr M, Stattin H. What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Dev Psychol. 2000;36:366–80.
Kinsman SB. Early sexual initiation: the role of peer norms. Pediatrics. 1998;102(5):1185–92.
Kirby, D. and DiClemente, R. J. School-based interventions to prevent unprotected sex and HIV among adolescents. In R.J. DiClemente, R. J. and J.L. Peterson (Eds). Preventing AIDS: Theories and Methods of Behavioral Interventions (pp. 117–139). New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1994.
Kirby D. School-based interventions to prevent unprotected sex and HIV among adolescents. In: DiClemente R, Person J, editors. Preventing AIDS: theories and methods of behavioral interventions. New York: Plenum Press; 2000. p. 83–102.
Kirby D. Emerging Answers 2007: research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. Washington, DC: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy; 2007.
Kotchick BA, Dorsey S, Miller KS, Forehand R. Adolescent sexual risk taking behavior in single-parent ethnic minority families. J Fam Psychol. 1999;13(1):93–102.
Knoester, C., Haynie, D. L, & Stephens, CM (2006). Parenting practices and adolescents’ friendship networks. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 1247–1260.
Krauss B. HIV education for teens and preteens in a high-seroprevalence inner-city neighborhood. Fam Soc. 1997;78(6):579–91.
Krauss B. Youth and the global HIV/AIDS epidemic: considerations for goals and targets. Expert group meeting on goals and targets for the World Programme of Action for Youth: Youth in civil society and youth and their well-being, invited presentation. United Nations Headquarters, New York, NY; 2008, May.
Krauss B. Summary of the Center for Community and Urban Health’s technical assistance to, and research foundations for the New York City Department of Education for the Center’s Summer 2004 revision of the New York City Public School’s K-12 HIV curriculum. Presentation to the Sex Education Alliance of New York City, New York, NY; 2007 May.
Krauss B, Goldsamt L, Bula E. Parent-preadolescent communication about HIV in a high seroprevalence neighborhood. In: Sigman M (Chair), Mother-adolescent communication about sexuality and AIDS. Symposium conducted at the Society for Research in Child Development Biennial Meeting, Washington DC; 1997 April.
Krauss BJ, Godfrey C, Yee DS, Goldsamt L, Tiffany J, Almeyda L, et al. Saving our children from a silent epidemic: the PATH program for parents and pre-adolescents. In: Pequegnat W, Szapocznik J, editors. Working with families in the era of HIV/AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2000. p. 89–112.
Krauss B, Godfrey C, O’Day J, Pride J, Donaire M. Now I can learn about HIV – effects of a parent training on children’s practical HIV knowledge and HIV worries: a randomized trial in an HIV-affected neighborhood [Abstract]. XIV-th World AIDS Conference, Conference Record, Vol. 2, 170; 2002 July.
Krauss B, Godfrey C, O’Day J, Freidin E. Hugging my uncle: the impact of a parent training on children’s comfort interacting with persons with HIV. J Pediatr Psychol. 2006a;31(9):891–904.
Krauss B, O’Day J, Godfrey C, Rente K, Freidin L, Bratt E, et al. Who wins in the status games? Violence, sexual violence and an emerging single standard among adolescent women. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006b;1087(November):56–73.
Krauss BJ, Hodorek S, McGinniss S, O’Day J. Mothers, fathers, daughters and sons: long term gender-fair risk and stigma reduction outcomes of a family- and community-based intervention for young adolescents [Abstract]. XVII-th International AIDS Conference, Conference Record, Vol. 2, 155; 2008 Aug.
Lefkowitz ES, Romo LF, Corona R, Au TK, Sigman M. How Latino American and European adolescents discuss conflicts, sexuality, and AIDS with their mothers. Dev Psychol. 2000;36:315–25.
Leland N, Barth R. Characteristics of adolescents who have attempted to avoid HIV and who have communicated with parents about sex. J Adolesc Res. 1993;8:58–76.
Long N, Austin BJ, Gound MM, Kelly AO, Gardner AA, Dunn R, et al. The parents matter! Program interventions: content and the facilitation process. J Child Fam Stud. 2004;13(1):47–69.
Longmore MA, Manning WD, Giordano PC. Preadolescent parenting strategies and teens’ dating and sexual initiation: a longitudinal analysis. J Marriage Fam. 2001;63(2):322–35.
Maccoby EE. Social development: psychological growth and the parent child relationship. New York: Harcourt Brace Janovich; 1980.
Markham CM, Perkins MF, Addy RC, Baumler ER, Tortolero SR. Patterns of vaginal, oral, and anal intercourse in an urban seventh-grade population. J School Health. 2009;79(4):193–200.
Martino SC, Elliott MN, Corona R, Kanouse DE, Schuster MA. Beyond the “big talk”: the roles of breadth and repetition in parent-adolescent communication about sexual topics. Pediatrics. 2008;121(3):e612–8.
McBride CK, Paikoff RL, Holmbeck GN. Individual and familial influences on the onset of sexual intercourse among urban African American adolescents. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2003;71(1):159–67.
McKay M, Baptiste D, Coleman D, Madison S, Paikoff R, Scott R. Preventing HIV risk exposure in urban communities: the CHAMP family program. In: Pequegnat W, Szapocznik J, editors. Working with children in the era of HIV/AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2000. p. 67–88.
McWright L. African American grandmothers’ and grandfathers’ influence in the socialization of children. In: McAdoo HP, editor. Black children: social, educational and parental environments. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2002. p. 27–44.
Miller KS, Clark LF, Wendell DA, Levin ML, Gray-Ray P, Velez CN, et al. Adolescent heterosexual experience: a new typology. J Adolesc Health. 1997;20:179–86.
Miller BC, Norton MC, Fan X, Christopherson CR. Pubertal development, parental communication, and sexual values in relation to adolescent sexual behaviors. J Early Adolesc. 1998a;18: 27–52.
Miller KS, Kotchick BA, Dorsey S, Forehand R, Ham AY. Family communication about sex: what are parents saying and are their adolescents listening? Fam Plann Perspect. 1998b;30(5): 218–35.
Miller KS, Levin ML, Whitaker DJ, Xu X. Patterns of condom use among adolescents: the impact of mother-adolescent communication. Am J Public Health. 1998c;88(10):1542–15444.
Miller S, McKay M, Baptiste D. Social support for African American low income parents: the influence of preadolescents’ risk behavior and support role on parental monitoring and child outcomes. Soc Work Ment Health. 2007;5(1/2):121–47.
Miller KS, Maxwell KD, Fasula AM, Parker JT, Zackery S, Wyckoff SC. Pre-risk HIV prevention paradigm shift: the feasibility and acceptability of the parents matter! Program in HIV risk communities. Public Health Rep. 2010;125 Suppl 1:38–46.
Mitrani VB, Szapocznik J, Batista CR. Structural ecosystems therapy with HIV and African-American women. In: Pequegnat W, Szapocznik J, editors. Working with children in the era of HIV/AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2000. p. 67–88.
National Institutes of Health. Consensus development conference statement: interventions to prevent HIV risk behavior. Rockville, MD: National Institutes of Health; 1997.
New York City Department of Education. HIV/AIDS curriculum. Available via: http://schools.nyc.gov/Academics/FitnessandHealth/StandardsCurriculum/HIVAIDScurriculum (2009). Cited 14 Apr 2009.
New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. NYC youth risk behavior survey. Available via: http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/episrv/episrvyouthriskbehavior.shtml (2008). Cited 24 June 2009.
O’Donnell L, Stueve A, Wilson-Simmons R, Dash K, Agronick G, Jean Baptiste V. Heterosexual risk behaviors among urban young adolescents. J Early Adolesc. 2006;26(1):87–109.
O’Sullivan L, Brooks-Gunn J. The timing of changes in girls’ sexual cognitions and behaviors in early adolescence: a prospective cohort study. J Adolesc Health. 2005;37:211–9.
Paikoff RL. Early heterosexual debut: situations of sexual possibility. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1995;65(3):389–401.
Pedlow CT, Carey MP. Developmentally appropriate sexual risk reduction interventions for adolescents: rationale, review of interventions, and recommendations for research and practice. Ann Behav Med. 2004;27(3):172–84.
Pequegnat W, Szapocznik J, editors. Working with children in the era of HIV/AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2000.
Peterson SH. The importance of fathers: contextualizing sexual risk-taking in “low risk” African American adolescent girls. J Hum Behav Soc Environ New Perspect. 2007;15(2/3):329–46.
Pluhar EI, Kuriloff P. What really matters in family communication about sexuality? A qualitative analysis of affect and style among African American mothers and adolescent daughters. Sex Educ. 2004;4:303–21.
Poulsen MN, Vandenhoudt H, Wyckoff SC, Obongo C, Ochura J, Njiki G, et al. Cultural adaptation of a US evidence-based parenting intervention for rural Western Kenya: from parents matter! To families matter! AIDS Educ Prev. 2010;22(4):273–85.
Prado G, Pantin H, Schwartz SJ, Feaster D, Huang S, Sullivan S, et al. A randomized controlled trial of a parent-centered intervention in preventing substance use and HIV risk behaviors in Hispanic adolescents. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2007;75(6):914–26.
Rai AA, Stanton B, Wu Y, Li X, Galbraith J, Cottrell L, et al. Relative influences of perceived parental monitoring and perceived peer involvement on adolescent risk behaviors: an analysis of six cross-sectional data sets. J Adolesc Health. 2003;33(2):108–18.
Rapkin BD, Bennett J, Murphy P, Munoz M. The family health program: strengthening problem solving in families affected by AIDS to mobilize systems of support and care. In: Pequegnat W, Szapocznik J, editors. Working with children in the era of HIV/AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2000. p. 243–80.
Rose A, Koo HP, Bhaskar B, Anderson K, White G, Jenkins RR. The influence of primary caregivers on the sexual behavior of early adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2005;37:135–44.
Rotheran-Borus MJ, Lightfoot M. Helping adolescents and parents with AIDS to cope effectively with daily life. In: Pequegnat W, Szapocznik J, editors. Working with children in the era of HIV/AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2000. p. 213–42.
Ryan S, Franzetta K, Manlove J, Holcombe E. Adolescents’ discussions about contraception or STDs with partners before first sex. Perspect Sex Reprod Health. 2007;39(3):149–57.
Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW, Earls F. Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science. 1997;277:918–924.
Sampson, Robert J., Jeffrey D. Morenoff, and Felton Earls. 1999. “Beyond Social Capital: Spatial Dynamics of Collective Efficacy for Children.” American Sociological Review 64:633–660.
Sprecher S, Harris G, Meyers A. Perceptions of sources of sex education and targets of sex communication: sociodemographic and cohort effects. J Sex Res. 2008;45(1):17–26.
Stanton B, Cole M, Galbraith J, Li X, Pendleton S, Cottrel L, et al. A randomized trial of a parent intervention: parents can make a difference in long-term adolescent risk behaviors, perceptions and knowledge. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004;158:947–55.
Strasburger V, Wilson BJ, Jordan AB. Children, adolescents and the media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2008.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. Results from the 2003 national survey on drug use and health: national findings. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration; 2004 (DHHS Publication No. SMA 04–3964, NSDUH Series H-25).
Tiffany J, Tobias D, Raqib A, Ziegler J. Talking with kids about AIDS: a program for parents and other adults who care (manual). New York: Cornell University; 1993a.
Tiffany J, Tobias D, Raqib A, Ziegler J. Talking with kids about AIDS: a program for parents and other adults who care (teaching guide). New York: Cornell University; 1993b.
Toulou-Shams M, Paikoff R, McKirnan DJ, Holmbeck GN. Mental health and HIV risk among African American adolescents: the role of parenting. Soc Work Ment Health. 2006;5(1/2): 27–58.
United States Census Bureau. Selected social characteristics in the United States: 2005 2007. Available via: http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DatasetMainPageServlet (2009). Cited 24 Jan 2009.
Vakalahi HF. Adolescent substance use and family-based risk and protective factors: a literature review. J Drug Educ. 2001;31:29–46.
Vandenhoudt H, Miller KS, Ochura J, Wyckoff SC, Otwoma N, Poulsen MN, et al. Evaluation of a US evidence based parenting intervention in rural western Kenya: from parents matter to families matter! AIDS Educ Prev. 2010;22(4):328–43.
Wang A, Peterson GW, Morphey LK. Who is more important for early adolescents’ developmental choices? Peers or parents? Marriage Fam Rev. 2007;42(2):95–122.
Warren C. Parent-child communication about sex. In: Socha TJ, Stamp G, editors. Parents, children, and communication: frontiers of theory and research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1995. p. 173–201.
Whitaker DJ, Miller KS. Parent-adolescent discussions about sex and condoms: impact on peer influences of sexual risk behavior. J Adolesc Res. 2000;15(2):251–73.
Whitaker DJ, Miller KS, May DC, Levin ML. Teenage partners’ communication about sexual risk and condom use: the importance of parent-teenager discussions. Fam Plann Perspect. 1999;31(3):117–21.
Whitaker DJ, Miller KS, Clark LF. Reconceptualizing adolescent sexual behavior: beyond did they or didn’t they? Fam Plann Perspect. 2000;32(3):111–7.
Wilder EI, Watt TT. Risky parental behavior and adolescent sexual activity at first coitus. Milbank Q. 2002;80(3):481–524.
Wingood GM, DiClemente RJ. The Willow Program: mobilizing social networks of women living with HIV to enhance coping and to reduce sexual risk behavior. In: Pequegnat W, Szapocznik J, editors. Working with children in the era of HIV/AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2000. p. 281–99.
Wu Y, Stanton B, Galbraith J, Kaljee L, Cottrell L, Li X, et al. Sustaining and broadening intervention impact: a randomized controlled trial of three adolescent risk reduction intervention approaches. Pediatrics. 2003;111(1):e32–8.
Wyckoff SC, Miller KS, Forehand R, Bau JJ, Fasula A, Long N, et al. Patterns of sexuality communication between preadolescents and their mothers and fathers. J Child Fam Stud. 2008;17:649–62.
Zimmer-Gembeck MJ, Helfand M. Ten years of longitudinal research on U.S. adolescent sexual behavior: developmental correlates of sexual intercourse, and the importance of age, gender and ethnic background. Dev Rev. 2008;28:153–224.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Krauss, B.J., Miller, K.S. (2012). Parents as HIV/AIDS Educators. In: Pequegnat, W., Bell, C. (eds) Family and HIV/AIDS. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0439-2_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0439-2_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-0438-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-0439-2
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)