Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Informal Instruction and Development of Cognitive Skills: A Review and Critique of Research

  • Chapter
Cognitive Strategy Research

Abstract

Children grow up surrounded by other people. These people tell children things, sharing thoughts, feelings, knowledge, and attitudes; they help children accomplish tasks, completing parts children cannot; and they tend to offer less assistance as children become able to do more on their own. Children are also exposed, however, to people who do not share their knowledge and skills (or do so poorly), do not help children attempt new tasks, and/or do not encourage independent performance. Somehow, amid these myriad interactions, children learn and develop new skills. Two tempting hypotheses are that: (a) children develop because of the formal and informal instruction they receive and (b) those who receive better, more supportive instruction, have superior developmental outcomes. In this chapter we examine both hypotheses, and are forced to conclude that the causal links between informal instruction and cognitive development have not been established empirically. Rather than entertain the rival hypothesis that social interactions and cognitive development are parallel processes without cause-effect relations, we suggest conceptual and methodological refinements that may enable researchers to document how informal instructional interactions and cognitive development are related.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Adams, A.K. (1987). Classifier as apprentice: The novice-expert shift in categorization of animal types. Unpublished manuscript, University of Hawaii, Department of Psychology, Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, A.K., Sartore, P., & Bullock, D. (1988). Language-games and linguistic tools: Context and typicality effects on lexical specificity in maternal speech to toddlers. Unpublished manuscript, University of Hawaii, Department of Psychology, Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, K., & Eriksen, L.K. (1981). Differences between mothers and fathers in teaching style and child-rearing practices. Psychological Reports, 49, 237–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, R.Q. (1968). A reinterpretation of effects in studies of socialization. Psychological Review, 75, 81–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, R.Q. (1979). Parent, child, and reciprocal influences. American Psychologist, 34, 821–826.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borkowski, J.G., & Cavanaugh, J.G. (1979). Maintenance and generalization of skills and strategies by the retarded. In N.R. Ellis (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency: Psychological theory and research (pp. 569–617 ). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum & Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A.L., Campione, J.C., & Barclay, C.R. (1979). Training self-checking routines for estimating test readiness: Generalization from list learning to prose recall. Child Development, 50, 501–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A.L., & French, L. (1979). The zone of proximal development: Implications for intelligence testing in the year 2000. Intelligence, 3, 253–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruner, J.S. (1981). The social context of language acquisition. Language and Communication, 1, 155–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campione, J.C., Brown, A.L., & Ferrara, R.A. (1982). Mental retardation and intelIigence. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of human intelligence, (pp. 392–490 ). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cazden, C.B. (1981). Performance before competence: Assistance to child discourse in the zone of proximal development. The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 3, 5–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cazden, C.B., Cox, M., Dickinson, D., Steinberg, Z., & Stone, C. (1979). “You all gonna hafta listen”: Peer teaching in a primary classroom. In W.A. Collins (Ed.), The Minnesota symposia on child psychology, Vol. 12 (pp. 183–231 ). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum & Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Childs, C.P., & Greenfield, P.M. (1980). Informal modes of learning and teaching: The case of Zinacanteco weaving. In N. Warren (Ed.), Studies in cross-cultural psychology, Vol. 2 (pp. 269–316 ). London: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicirelli, V.G. (1967). Sibling configuration, creativity, IQ and academic achievement. Child Development, 38, 481–490.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicirelli, V.G. (1972). The effect of sibling relationships on concept learning of young children taught by child teachers. Child Development, 43, 282–287.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicirelli, V.G. (1973). Effects of sibling structure and interaction on children’s categorization style. Developmental Psychology, 9, 132–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cicirelli, V.G. (1976). Sibling interaction and cognitive development. In K.E Rigel & J.A. Meacham (Eds.), The developing individual in a changing world Vol. 2. Social and environmental issues (pp. 715–722 ). Chicago: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1981). Primer in causal analysis. [Review of Correlation and causality.] Contemporary Psychology, 26, 15–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, J.D. (1983). The zone of proximal development. In M. Pressley & J. Levin (Eds.), Cognitive strategy research Vol. 1. Psychological foundations (pp. 155–175 ). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, J.D., French, L.C., & Hall, L.K. (1985). Social influences on cognitive development. In D.L. Forrest-Pressley, G.E. MacKinnon, & T.G. Waller (Eds.), Metacognition, cognition, and human performance Vol. 1. Theoretical perspectives (pp. 33–56 ). New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLoache, J.S. (1984). What’s this? Maternal questions in joint picture book reading with toddlers. Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 6, 87–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, M.T., & Rollins, H.A. (1983). Does mother know best? Mothers and fathers interacting with preschool sons and daughters. Developmental Psychology, 19, 694–702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, W., & Rogoff, B. (1982). The role of instruction in memory development: Some methodological choices. Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 4, 6–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gelzheiser, L.M. (1984). Generalization from categorical memory tasks to prose by learning disabled adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 1128–1138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield, P.M. (1984). A theory of the teacher in the learning activities of everyday life. In B. Rogoff & R. Lane (Eds.), Everyday cognition (pp. 117–138 ). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartup, WW. (1985). Relationships and their significance in cognitive development. In R.A. Hinde, A. Perret-Clermont, & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Social relationships and cognitive development (pp. 66–82 ). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, J. (1987). Balancing for weaknesses and challenging developmental potential: A longitudinal study of mother-infant dyads in apprenticeship interactions. Developmental Psychology, 6, 762–770.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hess, R.D., & McDevitt, T.M. (1984). Some cognitive consequences of maternal intervention techniques: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 55, 2017–2030.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hess, R.D., & Shipman, V.C. (1965). Early experience and the specialization of cognitive modes in children. Child Development, 36, 869–886.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hess, R.D., & Shipman, V.C. (1967). Cognitive elements in maternal behavior. In J.P. Hill (Ed.), Minnesota symposia on child psychology, Vol. 1 (pp. 57–81 ). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodapp, R.M., Goldfield, E.C., & Boyatzis, C.J. (1984). The use and effectiveness of maternal scaffolding in mother-infant games. Child Development, 55, 772–781.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerwin, M.L., & Day, J.D. (1987). Advantages of joint over individual problem solving for independent performance on cognitive tasks. Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerwin, M.L., Day, J.D., & Maxwell, S. (in preparation). Relation between maternal teaching and children’s. learning to solve balance scale tasks. University of Notre Dame.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koester, L.S., & Bueche, N.A. (1980). Preschoolers as teachers: Where children are seen but not heard, Child Study Journal, 10, 107–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ling, R.F. (1982). [Review of Correlation and causality.] Journal of the American Statistical Association, 77, 489–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ludeke, R.J., & Hartup, WW (1983). Teaching behaviors of 9- and 11-year-old girls in mixed-age and same-age dyads. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 909–914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A.R. (1928). The problem of the cultural development of the child. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 36, 493–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A.R. (1961). An objective approach to the study of the abnormal child. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 31, 1–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A.V. (1982). The relationship between parents’ beliefs about child development and family constellation, socioeconomic status, and parents’ teaching strategies. In T.M. Laosa & I.E. Sigel (Eds.), Families as learning environments for children (pp. 261–299 ). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGillicuddy-DeLisi, AV. (1985). The relationship between parental beliefs and children’s cognitive level. In I.E. Sigel (Ed.) Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for children (pp. 7–24 ). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum & Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGillicuddy-DeLisi, AV., DeLisi, R., Flaugher, J., & Sigel, I.E. (1987). Familial influences on planning. In S.L. Friedman, E.K. Scholnick, & R.R. Cocking (Eds.), Blueprints for thinking (pp. 395–427 ). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A.V., Sigel, I.E., & Johnson, J.E. (1979). The family as a system of mutual influences: Parental beliefs, distancing behaviors, and children’s representational thinking. In M. Lewis & L. Rosenbaum (Eds.), The child and its family (pp. 91–106 ). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNamee, G.D. (1979). The social interaction origins of narrative skills. Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 1, 63–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehan, H. (1979). Social organization in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, K. (1980). Characteristics of children’s scripts for familiar events. Paper presented at the annual meetings of the American Psychological Association, Montreal.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, K., & Gruendel, J.M. (1981). Generalized event representations: Basic building blocks of cognitive development. In M. Lamb & A.L. Brown (Eds.) Advances in developmental psychology, Vol. 1 (pp. 131–158 ). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum & Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ninio, A., & Bruner, J.S. (1978). The achievement and antecedents of labelling. Journal of Child Language, 5, 1–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palincsar, A.M., & Brown, A.L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 117–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petitto, A.L. (1983). Long division of labor: In support of an interactive theory of learning. Unpublished manuscript, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressley, M. Borkowski, J.G., & O’Sullivan, J. (1985). Children’s metamemory and the teaching of memory strategies. In D.L. Forrest-Pressley, G.E. MacKinnon, & T.G. Waller (Eds.) Metacognition, cognition, and human performance. Vol. 1 Theoretical perspectives (pp. 111–153 ). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressley, M., & Dennis-Rounds, J. (1980). Transfer of a mnemonic keyword strategy at two age levels. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 575–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, J., Zukow, P.G., & Greenfield, P.M. (1978). Facilitating the transition from sensorinzotor to linguistic communication. Paper presented at International Congress of Child Language, Tokyo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renshaw, PD., & Gardner, R. (1987). Parental goals and strategies in teaching contexts: An exploration of “activity theory” with mothers and fathers of preschool children. Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogoff, B. (1986). Adult-assistance of children’s learning. In T.E. Raphael (Ed.), Contexts of school-based literacy (pp. 27–40 ). New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogoff, B., Ellis, S., & Gardner, W. (1984). Adjustment of adult-child instruction according to child’s age and task. Developmental Psychology, 20, 193–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogoff, B., Malkin, C., & Gilbride, K. (1984). Interaction with babies as guidance in development. In B. Rogoff, & J V Wertsch (Eds.), Children’s learning in the “zone of proximal developments.” New Directions for Child Development, Vol. 23 (pp. 31–44 ). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumaker, J.B., Deshler, D.D., & Ellis, E.S. (1986). Intervention issues related to the education of LD adolescents. In J.K. Torgesen & B.Y.L. Wong (Eds.) Psychological and educational perspectives on learning disabilities (pp. 329–365 ). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D.H., & Hanson, A.R. (1985). Peer models: Influence on children’s selfefficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 313–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D.H., Hanson, A.R., & Cox, P.D. (1987). Peer-model attributes and children’s achievement behaviors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 54–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegler, R. (1976). Three aspects of cognitive development. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 481–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigel, I.E. (1982). The relationship between parental distancing strategies and the child’s cognitive behavior. In L. M. Laosa and I.E. Sigel (Eds.), Families as learning environments for children (pp. 47–86 ). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, C.E. (1979). Conversations with children. In P. Fletcher & M. Garmon (Eds.), Language acquisition (pp. 69–89 ). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tizard, B. (1985). Social relationships between adults and young children and their impact on intellectual functioning. In R.A. Hinde, A. Perret-Clermont, & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Social relationships and cognitive development (pp. 116–130 ). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tizard, B., & Hughes, M. (1984). Young children learning: Talking and thinking at home and at school. London: Fontana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tizard, B., Hughes, M., Carmichael, H., & Pinkerton, G. (1983a). Children’s questions and adults’ answers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24, 269–281.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tizard, B., Hughes, M., Carmichael, H., & Pinkerton, G. (1983b). Language and social class: Is verbal deprivation a myth? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24, 533–542.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tizard, B., Hughes, M., Pinkerton, G., & Carmichael, H. (1982). Adults’ cognitive demands at home and at nursery school. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 23, 105–116.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L.S. (1929). The problem of the cultural development of the child. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 36, 415–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner & E. Souberman (Eds.), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wertsch, J.V. (1979). From social interaction to higher psychological processes: A clarification and application of Vygotsky’s theory. Human Development, 22, 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wertsch, J., McNamee, G., Budwig, N., & McLane, J. (1980). The adult-child dyad as a problem-solving system. Child Development, 51, 1215–1221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, D., Bruner, J.S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem-solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, D., Wood, H., & Middleton, D. (1978). An experimental evaluation of four face-to-face teaching strategies. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1, 131–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wozniak, R.H. (1975). Psychology and education of the learning disabled child in the Soviet Union. In W. Cruikshank & D.P. Hallahan (Eds.), Perceptual and learning disabilities in children, Vol. 1. Psychoeducational practices (pp. 407–479 ). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zukow, P.G., Reilly, J., & Greenfield, P.M. (1982). Making the absent present: Facilitating the transition from sensorimotor to linguistic communication. In K. Nelson (Ed.), Children’s language, Vol. 3 (pp. 1–90 ). New York: Gardner.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Jeanne D. Day
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Luis A. Cordon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mary Louise Kerwin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. College of Education, Department of Educational Psychology, University of South Carolina, 29208, Columbia, SC, USA

    Christine B. McCormick

  2. Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, 29208, Columbia, SC, USA

    Gloria E. Miller

  3. Department of Psychology, The University of Western Ontario, N6A 5C2, London, Ontario, Canada

    Michael Pressley

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1989 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Day, J.D., Cordon, L.A., Kerwin, M.L. (1989). Informal Instruction and Development of Cognitive Skills: A Review and Critique of Research. In: McCormick, C.B., Miller, G.E., Pressley, M. (eds) Cognitive Strategy Research. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8838-8_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8838-8_4

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-8840-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-8838-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation