Abstract
Confocal microscopy is particularly advantageous for 3-D imaging of thick objects as a result of its optical sectioning property (Sheppard, 1987). It is widely used in the fluorescence mode for imaging biological objects of various types, but is also used in the brightfield reflection mode for imaging objects of different forms.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Ariyama, I., Taraka, T., Oda, E., Kamata, T., Masubuchi, K., Arai, K. and Ishihara, Y. (1986): A 1280 x 980 pixel CCD image sensor, in: Digest of technical papers, 1986 IEEE Int. Solid State Circuit Conf., 96–97.
Blouke, M., Corrie, B., Heidtmann, D., Yang, F. H., Winzenread, M., Lust, M. L., March, H. H. and Taresick, J. R. (1987): Large format, high resolution image sensors, Opt. Eng., 26: 837–843.
Cox, I. J. and Sheppard, C. J. R. (1986): The information capacity of a multidimensional communication system, Int. J. Electronics, 60: 655–662.
Davidovitz, P. and Egger, M. D. (1971): Scanning laser microscope for biological investi-gations. Appl. Opt., 10: 1615–1619.
Frieden, B. R. (1967): Optical transfer of the three-dimensional object, J. Opt. Soc. Amer., 57: 56–66.
Gu, M. and Sheppard, C. J. R. (1991): Effects of a finite-sized detector on the OTF of confocal fluorescent microscopy, Optik, 89: 65–69.
Gu, M. and Sheppard, C. J. R. (1992): Confocal fluorescent microscopy with a finite sized circular detector, J. Opt. Soc. Amer., A 9: 151–153.
Howarth, J., Holtom, R., Sheppard, C. J. R. and Trawny, E. (1976): Thermionic emission from NEA silicon, Adv. Electronics and Electron Physics, 40A: 387–396.
Kawata, S., Arimoto, R. and Nakamura, O. (1991): Three-dimensional optical-transfer function analysis for a laser-scan fluorescence microscope with an extended detector, J. Opt. Soc. Amer., A 8: 171–175.
Kimura, S. and Munakata, C. (1989): Calculation of three-dimensional optical transfer function for a confocal scanning fluorescent microscope, J. Opt. Soc. Amer., A 6: 1015–1019.
Kimura, S. and Munakata, C. (1990): Dependence of 3-D optical transfer functions on the pinhole radius in a fluorescent confocal optical microscope, Applied Optics, 29: 3007–3011.
Koester, C. J., Khanna, S. M., Rosskothen, H. and Tackaberry, R. B. (1989): Incident light sectioning microscope for visualization of cellular structures in the inner ear, Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh) Suppl., 467: 27–33.
Martinelli, R. U. and Fisher, D. G. (1974): The application of semiconductors with negative electron affinity surface to election emission devices, Proc. IEEE, 62: 11339.
McCutchen, C. W. (1964): Generalized aperture and the three-dimensional diffraction image, J. Opt. Soc. Amer., 54: 240–244.
Nakamura, O. and Kawata, S. (1990): Three-dimensional transfer function analysis of the tomographic capability of a confocal fluorescent microscopy, J. Opt. Soc. Amer., A7: 522–526.
Noda, M., Imaide, T., Kinugasa and Nishmura, R. (1986): A solid state color video camera with a horizontal readout MOS imager, IEEE Trans. Consumer Electron., CE-32: 329–336.
Shannon, C. E. (1949): Communications in the presence of noise, Proc. IRE, 37: 10–21.
Sheppard, C. J. R. (1986a): The spatial frequency cut-off in three-dimensional imaging, Optik, 72: 131–133.
Sheppard, C. J. R. (1986b): The spatial frequency cut-off in three-dimensional imaging II, Optik, 74: 128–129.
Sheppard, C. J. R. (1987): Scanning optical microscopy, In: Advances in Optical and Electron Microscopy, Vol. 10, R Barer and VE Cosslett eds., Academic Press, London, 1–98.
Sheppard, C. J. R. and Mao, X. Q. (1988): Confocal microscopy with slit apertures. J. Mod. Opt., 35: 1169–1185.
Sheppard, C. J. R. (1989a): General considerations of diffraction theory of 3-D imaging, European J. Cell Biology, 48, Suppl. 25: 29–32.
Sheppard, C. J. R. (1989b): Axial resolution of confocal fluorescence microscopy, J. Microscopy 154: 237–241.
Sheppard, C. J. R. and Mao, X. Q. (1989): Three-dimensional imaging in a microscope, J. Opt. Soc. Amer., A6: 1260–1269.
Sheppard, C. J. R. (1991): Straylight and noise in confocal microscopy, Micron Microsc. Acta, 22: 239–243.
Sheppard, C. J. R. and Cogswell, C. J. (1990): Three-dimensional imaging in confocal microscopy, J. Microscopy 159: 179–194.
Sheppard, C. J. R. and Gu, M. (1991a): Optical sectioning in confocal microscopes with annular pupil, Optik, 86: 169–172.
Sheppard, C. J. R. and Gu, M. (1991b): Improvement of axial resolution in confocal microscopy using an annular pupil, Opt. Commun., 84: 7–13.
Sheppard, C. J. R., Cogswell, C. J. and Gu, M. (1991): Signal strength and noise in confocal microscopy: factors influencing selection of an optimum detector aperture, Scanning, 13: 233–240.
Sheppard, C. J. R. and Gu, M. (1992): The significance of 3-D transfer function in confocal scanning microscopy, J. Microsc., 165: 377–399.
Sheppard, C. J. R., Gu, M. and Roy, M. (1992): Signal-to-noise ratio in confocal microscope system, J. Microsc., 168: 209–218.
Streibl, N. (1985): Three-dimensional image in a microscope, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A2: 121–127.
Wolf, E. (1969): Three-dimensional structure determination of semi-transparent objects from holographic data, Opt. Commun., 1: 153–156.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1994 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Sheppard, C.J.R. (1994). Confocal Microscopy: Basic Principles and System Performance. In: Cheng, P.C., Lin, T.H., Wu, W.L., Wu, J.L. (eds) Multidimensional Microscopy. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8366-6_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8366-6_1
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-8368-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-8366-6
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive