Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Parental Contributions to the Development of Their Offspring

  • Chapter
Parental Care in Mammals

Abstract

This chapter will consider the question of what mammalian parents contribute to the development of their offspring and how they do it. Of course, the very designation of an animal as a mammal depends on how the mother nourishes the young, and this aspect of the relationship still dominates our thinking on the nature of early parental care. The mother is there to feed the infant so it can grow. Before birth she does this through the placenta and after birth through her mammary system. The contribution of the mother, then, is to supply the metabolic substrate for the biochemical synthetic factories in the muscles, bones, skin, and internal organs of the fetus. But the infant has another obvious need—to be protected. The evolutionary origins of these two basic characteristics of parental care in mammals have been discussed by Klopfer (this volume).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ackerman, S. H., Hofer, M. A., and Weiner, H., 1975, Age at maternal separation and gastric erosion susceptibility in the rat, Psychosom. Med. 37:180–184.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, S. H., Hofer, M. A., and Weiner, H., 1978a, Early maternal separation increases gastric ulcer risk in rats by producing a latent thermoregulatory disturbance, Science 201:373–376.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, S. H., Hofer, M. A., and Weiner, H., 1978b, The predisposition to gastric erosions in the rat: Behavioral and nutritional effects of early maternal separation. Gastroenterology 75:649–654.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ader, R. 1969, Early experiences accelerate maturation of the 24 hour adrenocortical rhythm, Science 163:1225–1226.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ader, R., and Deitchman, R., 1970, Effects of prenatal maternal handling on the maturation of rhythmic processes, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.71:492–496.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akiskal, H. S., and McKinney, W. T., 1973, Depression disorders: Toward a unified hypothesis, Science 182:20–29.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barcroft, J., 1938, The Brain and Its Environment, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G., and Kowall, M., 1977, Crucial role of the postnatal maternal environment in the expression of prenatal stress effects in the male rat, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.91:1432–1446.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J., 1969, Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1, Attachment, Basic Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J., 1973, Attachment and Loss, Vol. 2, Separation, Basic Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brackbill, Y., 1971, Effects of continuous stimulation on arousal levels in infants, Child Devp.41:17–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, R. M, and Mistretta, C. M., 1975, Fetal sensory receptors, Physiol. Rev. 55:352.–382.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Broadhurst, P. L., 1961, Analysis of maternal effects in the inheritance of behavior, Anim. Behav.9:129–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, S. R., Suskind, M. R., and Schanberg, S. M., 1968, Maternal behavior as a regulator of polyamine biosynthesis in brain and heart of the developing rat pup, Science 199:445–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Condon, W. S., and Sander, L. W., 1974, Neonate movement is synchronized with adult speech: Interactional participation and language acquisition, Science 183:99–101.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dahlhof, L.-G., Hard, E., and Larsson, K., 1978, Sexual differentiation of offspring of mothers treated with cortisone during pregnancy, Physiol. Behav.21:673–674.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • deFries, J. C, 1964, Prenatal maternal stress in mice: Differential effects on behavior, J. Hered.55:289–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denenberg, V. H., and Whimbey, A. E., 1963, Behavior of adult rats is modified by the experiences their mothers had as infants, Science 142:1192–1193.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denenberg, V. H., Hudgens, G. A., and Zarrow, M. Z., 1964, Mice reared with rats: Modification of behavior by early experience with another species, Science 143: 380–381.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denenberg, V. H., Paschke, R., Zarrow, M. X., and Rosenberg, K. M., 1969a, Mice reared with rats: Elimination of odors, vision, and audition as significant stimulus sources, Dev. Psychobiol.2:26–28.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denenberg, V. H., Rosenberg, K. M., and Zarrow, M. X., 1969b, Mice reared with rat aunts: Effects in adulthood upon plasma corticosterone and open-field activity, Physiol. Behav.4:705–707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drickamer, L. C, 1974, Sexual maturation of female house mice: Social inhibition, Dev. Psychobiol.7:257–265.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Erway, L., Hurley, L. S., and Fraser, A., 1966, Neurological defect: Manganese in phenocopy and prevention of a genetic abnormality of inner ear, Science 152:1766–1769.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fairfield, J., 1948, Effects of cold on infant rats: Body temperatures, oxygen consumption, electrocardiograms, Am. J. Physiol.155:355–365.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flandera, V., and Novakova, V., 1974, Effect of mother on the development of aggressive behavior in rats, Dev. Psychobiol.8:49–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraiberg, S., 1974, Blind infants and their mothers: An examination of the sign system, in: The Effect of the Infant on Its Care Giver (M. Lewis and L. A. Rosenblum, eds.), Origins of Behavior, Vol. 1, pp. 215–232, Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaensbauer, T. J., and Emde, R. N., 1973, Wakefulness and feeding in human newborns, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 28:894–897.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gesell, A., and Amatruda, C. S., 1945, The Embryology of Behavior, Harper, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ginsberg, B., and Allee, W. C., 1942, Some effects of conditioning on social dominance and subordination in inbred strains of mice, Physiol. Zool.25:485–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gruenwald, P., (ed.), 1975, The Placenta and Its Maternal Supply Line, University Park Press, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harlow, H. F., 1958, The nature of love, Am. Psychol.12:673–685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinde, R. A., and Spencer-Booth, Y., 1971, Effects of brief separations from mother on Rhesus monkeys, Science 173:111–118.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A., 1970, Physiological responses of infant rats to separation from their mothers, Science 168:871–873.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A., 1973a, The effects of brief maternal separations on behavior and heart rate of two week old rat pups, Physiol. Behav.10:423–427.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A., 1973b, The role of nutrition in the physiological and behavioral effects of early maternal separation on infant rats, Psychosom. Med.35:350–359.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A. 1973c, Maternal separation affects infant rats’ behavior, Behav. Biol.9:629–633.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A., 1974, The role of early experience in the development of autonomic regulation, in: The Limbic and Autonomic Nervous System: Advances in Research (L. DiCara, ed.), pp. 195–221, Plenum Press, New York.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A., 1975a, Studies on how early maternal separation produces behavioral change in young rats, Psychosom. Med.37:245–264.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A., 1975b, Survival and recovery of physiologic functions after early maternal separation in rats, Physiol. Behav.15:475–480.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A., 1978, Hidden regulatory processes in early social relationships, in: Perspectives in Ethology, Vol. 3 (P. P. G. Bateson and P. H. Klopfer, eds.), pp. 135–163, Plenum Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A., and Weiner, H., 1971, The development and mechanisms of cardiorespiratory responses to maternal deprivation in rat pups, Psychosom. Med.33:353–362.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A., and Weiner, H., 1975, Physiological mechanisms for cardiac control by nutritional intake after early maternal separation in the young rat, Psychosom. Med.37:8–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M. A., and Shair, H., 1978, Ultrasonic vocalization during social interaction and isolation in 2 week old rats, Dev. Psychobiol.11:495–504.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, H. S., and Solomon, R. L., 1974, An opponent-process theory of motivation. III. Some affective dynamics in imprinting, Learn. Motiv.5:149–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchings, D. E., 1978, Behavioral teratology: Embryopathic and behavioral effects of drugs during pregnancy, in: Early Influences Studies on the Development of Behavior, Vol. 4, (G. Gottlieb, ed.), pp. 7–34, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, I. C., and Rosenblum, L. A., 1969, Effects of separation from mother on the emotional behavior of infant monkeys, Ann. N.Y. Acad.Sci.159:681–695.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, I. C., and Stynes, A. J., 1978, Depression can be induced in a Bonnet Macaque infant, Psychosom. Med.40:71–75.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Korner, A. F., and Thoman, E. B., 1970, Visual alertness in neonates as evoked by maternal care, J. Exp. Child Psychol.10:67–68.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kravitz, H., and Boehm, J. J., 1971, The effects of institutionalization on development of stereotyped and social behaviors in mental defectives, Child Dev.42:399–413.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuffler, S., and Nichols, J. G., 1976, From Neuron to Brain, Sinaver, Sunderland, Mass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, C. M., Butler, S. R., and Schanberg, S. M., 1978, Selective depression of serum growth hormone during maternal deprivation in rat pups, Science 201:1034–1036.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M. H. S., and Williams, D. I., 1974, Longterm changes in nest condition and pup grouping following handling of rat litters, Dev. Psychobiol.8:91–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leifer, A., Leiderman, P. H., Barnett, C, and Williams, J., 1972, Effects of motherinfant separation on maternal attachment behavior, Child. Dev.43:1203–1218.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, R., and Stern, J. M., 1975, Maternal influences on ontogeny of suckling and feeding rhythms in the rat, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.89:711–721.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, S., and Thoman, E. B., 1969, Physiological and behavioral consequences of postnatal maternal stress in rats, Physiol. Behav.4:139–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, J. K., McKinney, W. T., Young, L. D., and Kraemer, G. W., 1976, Mother infant separation in rhesus monkeys as a model of human depression—A reconsideration. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 33:699–705.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, M., 1963, Early developmental stress and later behavior, Science 141:824–825.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liley, A. W., 1972, Disorders of amniotic fluid, in: Fetal Placental Disorders (W. S. Assali and C. R. Brinkman, eds.), Pathophysiology of Gestation, Vol. 2, pp. 157–206, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lund, R. D., 1978, Development and Plasticity of the Brain, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maison, L., 1972, Wolf Children and the Problem of Human Nature, Monthly Review Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, W. A., and Berkson, G., 1974, Effects of maternal mobility on the development of rocking and other behaviors in Rhesus monkeys: A study with artificial mothers, Dev. Psychobiol.8:197–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Money, J., and Ehrhardt, A. A., 1972, Man and Woman—Boy and Girl, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neal, M. V., 1968, Vestibular stimulation and developmental behavior of the small premature infant, Nurs. Res. Rep.3:1–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, G. F., Brasel, J. A., and Blizzard, R. M., 1967, Emotional deprivation and growth retardation simulating idiopathic hypopituitarism, N. Engl. J. Med.276:1271–1283.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reading, A. J., 1966, Effect of maternal environment on the behavior of inbred mice. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.62:437–440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reite, M., Kaufman, I. C., Pauley, J. D., and Stynes, A. J., 1974, Depression in infant monkeys: Physiological correlates, Psychosom. Med.36:363–367.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ressler, R. H., 1963, Genotype correlated parental influences in two strains of mice, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.56:882–886.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenblatt, J. S., 1971, Suckling and home orientation in the kitten: A comparative developmental study, in: The Biopsychology of Development (E. Tobach, L. Aronson, and E. Shaw, eds.), pp. 345–410, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruppenthal, G. C., Arling, G. L., Harlow, H. F., Sackett, G. P., and Suomi, S. J., 1976, A 10-year perspective of motherless-mother monkey behavior, J. Abnorm. Psychol.85:341–349.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, P. A., 1971, “Infantile stimulation” in rodents: A consideration of possible mechanisms, Psychol. Bull.75:192–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salk, L., 1962, Mother’s heartbeat as an imprinting stimulus, Trans. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 24:753.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sander, L. W., Julia, H. L., Stechler, G., and Burns, P., 1972, Continuous 24 hour interactional monitoring of infants reared in two caretaking environments, Psychosom. Med.34:270–282.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schleidt, W. M., 1973, Tonic communication: Continual effects of discrete signs in animal communication systems, J. Theor. Biol.42:359–386.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J. P., 1962, Critical periods in behavioral development, Science 183:949–958.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J. P., and Fuller, J. L., 1965, Genetics and Social Behavior of the Dog, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seay, B., Hansen, E. W., and Harlow, H. F., 1962, Mother-infant separation in monkeys, Child Psychol. Psychiatry 3:123–132.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seitz, P. F. D., 1959, Infantile experience and adult behavior in animal subjects. II. Age of separation from the mother and adult behavior in the cat, Psychosom. Med.21:353–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, K. N., and Nasset, E. S., 1962, Electrical activity in mesenteric nerves after perfusion of gut lumen, Am. J. Physiol.202:725–730.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharpless, S. K., 1975, Disuse supersensitivity, in: The Developmental Neuropsychology of Sensory Deprivation (A. H. Riesen, ed.), pp. 125–146, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skolnick, N. J., Ackerman, S. H., Hofer, M. A., and Weiner, H., 1980, Vertical transmission of acquired ulcer susceptibility in the rat, Science 208:1161–1162.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. J., Joffe, J. M., Heseltine, G. F. D., 1975, Modification of prenatal stress effects in rats by adrenalectomy dexamethasone and chlorpromazine, Physiol. Behav. 15:461–469.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solkoff, N., Yaffe, S., Weintraub, D., and Blase, B., 1969, Effects of handling on the subsequent development of premature infants, Dev. Psychol.1:765–768.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sontag, L. W., 1966, Implications of fetal behavior and environment for adult personalities. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.132:782–786.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Southwick, C. H., 1968, Effect of maternal environment on aggressive behavior in inbred mice, Comm. Behav. Biol.1:129–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spitz, R. A., 1945, Hospitalism: An enquiry into psychiatric conditions in early childhood, Psychoanal. Study Child 1:53–80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spitz, R. N., 1946, Anaclitic depression, Psychoanal. Study Child 2:313–347.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sterman, M. B., 1972, The basic rest activity cycle and sleep, in: Sleep and the Maturing Nervous System (D. Clemente, D. P. Purpura, and F. E. Mayer, eds.), pp. 175–195, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. A., 1974, Mother and infant at play: The dyadic interaction involving facial, vocal and gaze behavior, in: Origins of Behavior, Vol. 1, The Effect of the Infant on Its Care Giver (M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum, eds.), pp. 187–214, Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, E., Bonnet, K., and Hofer, M. A., 1976, Survival and development of maternally deprived rats: Role of body temperature, Psychosom. Med.38:242–249.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suomi, S. J., and Harlow, H. F., 1976, Social rehabilitation of separation-induced depressive disorders in monkeys, Am. J. Psychiatry 133:1279–1285.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thoman, E. B., and Arnold, W. J., 1968, Effects of incubator rearing with social deprivation on maternal behavior in rats, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.65:441–446.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thoman, E. B., and Korner, A. F., 1971, Effects of vestibular stimulation on the behavior and development of infant rats, Dev. Psychol.5:92–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, W. R., Watson, J., and Charlesworth, W. R., 1962, The effects of prenatal maternal stress on offspring behavior in rats, Psychol. Monogr.76:1–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbergh, J. C., 1969, Male odor accelerates female sexual maturation in mice, Endocrinology 84:658–660.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbergh, J. C., Finlayson, J. S., Dobrogosz, W. J., Dills, S. S., and Kost, T. A., 1976, Chromatographic separation of puberty accelerating pheromone from male mouse urine, Biol. Reprod.15:260–265.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waddington, C. H., 1957, The Strategy of the Genes, Macmillan, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, D., Grimwade, J., and Wood, C., 1971, Intrauterine noise: A component of the fetal environment, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.109:91–95.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, I. L., 1972, Prenatal stress feminizes and demasculinizes the behavior of males, Science 175:82–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wehmer, F., Porter, R. H., and Scales, B., 1970, Prenatal stress influences the behavior of subsequent generations. Comm. Behav. Biol.5:1–4.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Hospital, Bronx, New York, 10467, USA

    Myron A. Hofer

Authors
  1. Myron A. Hofer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA

    David J. Gubernick  & Peter H. Klopfer  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1981 Plenum Press, New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hofer, M.A. (1981). Parental Contributions to the Development of Their Offspring. In: Gubernick, D.J., Klopfer, P.H. (eds) Parental Care in Mammals. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-3150-6_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-3150-6_3

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-3152-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-3150-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation