Abstract
Flight is the characteristic adaptation of birds. The energetic cost of moving a unit of weight a unit distance in air (the dimensionless cost of transport) is rather low. For a given body mass, flying is a far more inexpensive way to move than is running, although it is more expensive than swimming (Schmidt-Nielsen 1984). But, despite the low cost of transport, flying requires a high rate of energy expenditure per unit time, and, therefore, flight is one of the most demanding adaptations found in nature. Four animal groups have evolved flapping flight—insects, pterosaurs, birds, and bats—all of which show advanced morphological and physiological specializations associated with aerial locomotion.
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Norberg, U.M. (1996). Energetics of Flight. In: Carey, C. (eds) Avian Energetics and Nutritional Ecology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0425-8_7
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