Abstract
The structure of soil can determine both the effectiveness and the impact of farming practices. Soil structure influences the extent to which crop breeding and the management of weeds, insects, disease, soil fertility, and water are manifested in increased crop yields. Soil structure also influences the loss of agricultural chemicals through erosion and leaching and can, therefore, have a significant bearing on the environmental impact of some agricultural practices.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abu-Sharar, T. M., F. T. Bingham, J. D. Rhoades, 1987. Reduction in hydraulic conductivity in relation to clay dispersion and disaggregation. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 51:342–346.
Adu, J. K., J. M. Oades. 1978. Physical factors influencing decomposition of organic materials in soil aggregates. Soil Biol. Biockem. 10:109–115.
Alderfer, R. B. 1946. Seasonal variability in the aggregation of Hagerstown silt loam. Soil Sci. 62:151–168.
Ali, O. M., M. Yousaf, J. D. Rhoades. 1987. Effect of exchangeable cation & electrolyte concentration on mineralogy of clay dispersed from aggregates. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 51:896–900.
Anderson, J. P. E., R. A. Armstrong, S. N. Smith. 1981. Methods to evaluatepesticide damage to the biomass of the soil microflora. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13:149–153.
Angers, D. A., B. D. Kay, and P. H. Groenevelt. 1987. Compaction characteristics of a soil cropped to corn and bromegrass. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 51:779–783.
Arya, L. M., and G. R. Blake. 1972. Stabilization of newly formed soil aggregates. Agron. J. 64:177–180.
Baldock, J. A., B. D. Kay. 1987. Influence of cropping history and chemical treatments on the water stable aggregation of a silt loam soil. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 67:501–511.
Ball, B. C. 1981. Pore characteristics of soils from two cultivation experiments as shown by gas diffusivities and permeabilities and air-filled porosities. J. Soil Sci. 32:483–498.
Barber, D. A., J. K. Martin. 1976. The release of organic substances by cereal roots into soil. New Phytologist 76:69–80.
Becher, H. H., M. Kainz. 1983. [Effects of long-term manuring on soil structure]. Z. Acker- Pflanzenbau 152:152–158.
Bennett, O. L., E. L. Mathias, C. B. Sperow. 1976. Double cropping for hay and no-tillage corn production as affected by sod species with rates of atrazine and nitrogen. Agron. J. 68:250–254.
Benoit, G. R. 1973. Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on aggregate stability and hydraulic conductivity of three aggregate sizes. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 37:3–5.
Bisal, F., W. S. Ferguson. 1968. Monthly and yearly changes in aggregate size of surface soils. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 48:159–164.
Bisal, F., K. F. Nielsen. 1964. Soil aggregates do not necessarily break down over winter. Soil Sci. 98:345–346.
Blackmore, A. V . 1981. Self-mulching soils. Soils News (Aust. Soc. Soil Sci.) July, p. 4.
Blake, G. R., W. W. Nelson, R. R. Allmaras. 1976. Persistence of subsoil compaction in a Mollisol. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 40:943–948.
Boekel, P. 1965. Handhaving van een goede bodemstructuur op klei-en zavelgronden. LandbouwL Tijdschr. 77:842–849.
Boone, F. R. 1986. Towards soil compaction limits for crop growth. Neth. J. Agric. Sci. 34:349–360.
Bosatta, E., G. L. Agren. 1985. Theoretical analysis of decomposition of heterogeneous substrates. Soil Biol Biochem. 17:601–610.
Bowen, H. D . 1981. Alleviating mechanical impedance in modifying the root environment to reduce stress. In: G. F. Arkin, H. M. Taylor (eds.), ASAE Mono. 4, Amer. Soc. Agr. Eng., St Joseph, MI.
Braunack, M. V., J. S. Hewitt, A. R. Dexter. 1979. Brittle fracture of soil aggregates and the compaction of aggregate beds. J. Soil Sci. 30:653–667.
Brewer, R., A. D. Haldane. 1957. Preliminary experiments in the development of clay orientation in soil. Soil Sci. 84:301–309.
Bui Huu Tri. 1968. Dynamique de la granulation du sol sous prairie. Ann. Agron. 19:415–439.
Bullock, M. S., W. D. Kemper, S. D. Nelson. 1988. Soil cohesion as affected by freezing, water content, time and tillage. Soil Sci. Sac. Amer. J. 52:770–776.
Bullock, P., A. C. D. Newman, A. J. Thomasson. 1985. Porosity aspects of the regeneration of soil structure after compaction. Soil Tillage Res. 5:325–341.
Burns, R. G., and J. A. Davies. 1986. The microbology of soil structure. Biol. Agric. Hon. 3:95–113.
Cannell, R. Q., D. B. Davies, D. Mackney, J. D. Pidgeon. 1978. The suitability of soils for sequential direct drilling of combined harvested crops in Britain: a provisional classification. Outlook on Agric. 9:306–316.
Cassel, D. K. 1983. Spatial and temporal variability in soil physical properties following tillage of Norfolk loamy sand. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 47:196–201.
Chamberlain, E. J., A. J. Gow. 1979. Effect of freezing and thawing on thepermeability & structure of soils. Eng. Geol. 13:73–92.
Chan, K. Y. 1989a. Friability of a hardsetting soil under different tillage and land use practices. Soil Tillage Res. 13:287–298.
Chan, K. Y. 1989b. Effect of tillage on aggregate strength & aggregation of vertisols. Soil Tillage Res. 13:163–175.
Churchman, G. J., K. R. Tate. 1986. Effect of slaughterhouse effluent and water irrigation upon aggregation in seasonally dry New Zealand soil under pasture. Aust. J. Soil Res. 24:505–516.
Churchman, G. J., K. R. Tate. 1987. Stability of aggregates of different size grades in allophanic soils from volcanic ash in New Zealand. J. Soil Sci. 38:19–27.
Coote, D., C. A. Malcolm-McGovern, G. J. Wall, W. T. Dickinson, and R. P. Rudra. 1988. Seasonal variation of erodibility indices based on shear strength and aggregate stability in some Ontario soils. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 68:405–416.
Coughlan, K. J., W. E. Fox, J. D. Hughes. 1973. Aggregation in swelling clay soils. Aust. J. Soil Res. 11:133–141.
Croney, D., J. D. Coleman. 1954. Soil structure in relation to soil suction (pF). J. Soil Sci. 5:75–84.
Croney, D., J. D. Coleman, W. P. M. Black. 1958. The movement and distribution of water in soil in relation to highway design and performance. Spec. Rep. 40, Highway Res. Bd., Washington, DC, pp. 226–252.
Czeratzki, W., H. Frese. 1958. Importance of water in formation of soil structure. Spec. Rep. 40, Highway Res. Bd., Washington, DC, pp. 200–211.
Dasog, G. S., D. F. Acton, A. R. Mermut, E. de Jong. 1988. Shrink swell potential and cracking in clay soils of Saskatchewan. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 68:251–260.
Davenport, J. R., R. L. Thomas. 1988. Carbon partitioning and rhizodeposition in corn and bromegrass. Canad. J. Soil Sci.,68:693–701.
Davenport, J. R., R. L. Thomas, S. C. Mott. 1988. Carbon mineralization of corn (Zea mays L.) and bromegrass (Bromus inermis Leyss.) components with an emphasis on the below-ground carbon. Soil Biol. Biochem. 20:471–476.
Davies, P. 1985. Influence of organic matter content, moisture status and time after reworking on soil shear strength. J. Soil Sci. 36:299–306.
de Boodt, M. (ed.) 1972. Fundamentals of soil conditioning. Meded. 37, Fak. Land-bouwwet., Rijksuniversiteit, Gent, de Boodt, M., and D. Gabriels (eds). 1976. Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on Soil Conditioning. Meded., Fak. Landbouwwet. Rijksuniversiteit. Gent.
Dexter, A. R. 1985. Shapes of aggregates from tilled layers of some Dutch and Australian soils. Geoderma 35:91–107.
Dexter, A. R. 1986a. Model experiments on the behaviour of roots at the interface between a tilled seed-bed and a compacted sub-soil II: Entry of pea and wheat roots into sub-soil cracks. Plant and Soil 95:135–147.
Dexter, A. R. 1986b. Model experiments on the behaviour of rots at the interface between a filled seed-bed and a compacted sub-soil. Plant and Soil 95:149–161.
Dexter, A. R. 1987a. Mechanics of root growth. Plant and Soil 98:303–312.
Dexter, A. R. 1987b. Compression of soil around roots. Plant and Soil 97:401–406.
Dexter, A. R. 1988. Advances in characterization of soil structure. Soil Tillage Res. 11:199–238.
Dexter, A. R., R. Horn, W. D. Kemper. 1988. Two mechanisms for age-hardeningof soil. J. Soil Sci. 39:163–175.
Dexter, A. R., B. Kroesbergen, H. Kuipers. 1984. Some mechanical properties of aggregates of top soils from the IJsselmeer polders. 2: Remolded soil aggregates and the effect of wetting and drying cycles. Neth. J. Agric. Sci. 32:215–227.
Donald, R. G., B. D. Kay, M. H. Miller. 1987. The effect of soil aggregate size on early shoot and root growth of maize (Zea mays L.). Plant Soil 103:251–259.
Doran, J. W., L. N. Mielke, S. Stamatiadas. 1988. Microbial activity and N cycling as regulated by soil water-filled pore space, pp. 49–54. In: Proc. 11th Int. Conf., Int. Soil Tillage Res. Org., Edinburgh, Scotland, vol. 1.
Douglas, J. T. 1986. Effects of season and management on the vane shear strength of a clay topsoil. J. Soil Sci. 37:669–679.
Douglas, J. T., M. G. Jarvis, K. R. House, M. J. Goss. 1986. Structure of a silty loam in relation to management. J. Soil Sci. 37:137–151.
Duffey, J. E., H. Halen, R. Frankart. 1986. Evolution de la stabilite structurale du sol sous rinfluence des racines de trefle (Trifolium pratense L.) et de ray-grass (Lolium multiflorum Lmk): Observations pendant et apres culture. Agronomie 6:811–817.
Dwyer, L. M., D. W. Stewart, D. Balchin. 1988. Rooting characteristics of corn soybeans and barley as a function of available water and soil physical characteristics. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 68:121–132.
Edwards, C. A., J. R. Lofty. 1972. Biology of earthworms. Chapman and Hall, London.
Edwards, W. M., L. D. Norton, C. E. Redmond. 1988. Characterizing macropores that affect infltration into nontilled soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 52:483–487.
Egashira, K., Y. Kaetsu, K. Takkuma. 1983. Aggregate stability as an index of erodibility of Ando soils. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 29:473–481.
Elkins, C. B., R. L. Haaland, C. S. Hoveland. 1977. Grass roots as a tool for penetrating soil hardpans and increasing crop yields, pp. 21–26. In: Proc. 34th Southern Pasture and Forage Improvement Conf., Auburn AL.
Elliott, E. T. 1986. Aggregate structure and carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in native & cultivated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 50:627–633.
Elliott, L. F., J. M. Lynch. 1984. The effect of available carbon and nitrogen in straw on soil & ash aggregation & acetic acid production. Plant and Soil 78:335–343.
Elliott, E. T., R. V. Anderson, D. C. Coleman, C. V. Cole. 1980. Habitable pore space and microbial trophic interactions. Oikos 34:327–335.
Emerson, W. W . 1954. The determination of the stability of soil crumbs. J. Soil Sci.5:235–350.
Emerson, W. W. 1955. The rate of water uptake of soil crumbs at low suctions. J. Soil Sci. 6:147–159.
Emerson, W. W. 1959. The structure of soil crumbs. J. Soil Sci. 10:235–243.
Emerson, W. W. 1967. A classification of soil aggregates based on their coherence in water. Aust. J. Soil Res. 5:47–57.
Emerson, W. W . 1983. Inter-particle bonding in soils: An Australian viewpoint. Div. of Soils, CSIRO, Melbourne. Academic Press, London, pp. 477–498.
Emerson, W. W., R. D. Bond, A. R. Dexter. 1978. Modification of soil structure. Wiley, Chichester, England.
Emerson, W. W., R. C. Foster, , J. M. Oades. 1986. Organo-mineral complexes in relation to soil aggregation and structure. In: Interaction of soil minerals with natural organics and microbes. SSSA Spec. Pub. 17, Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., Madison WI.
Emmond, G. S. 1971 Effect of rotations, tillage treatments & fertilizers on the aggregation of a clay soil. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 51:235–241.
Foster, R. C. 1988. Microenvironments of soil microorganisms. Biol. Per til. Soils 6:189–203.
Fox, W. E. 1964. Cracking characteristics and field capacity in a swelling soil. Soil Sci. 98:413.
Francis, P. B., R. M. Cruse. 1983. Soil water matric potential effects on aggregate stability. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 47:578–581.
Gameda, S., G. S. V. Raghaven, E. McKeyes, R. Theriault. 1987. Subsoil compaction in a clay soil. I: Cumulative effects. Soil Tillage Res. 10:113–122.
Gerard, C. J. 1987. Laboratory experiments on the effects of antecedent moisture and residue application on aggregation of different soils. Soil Tillage Res. 9:21–32.
Gibbs, R. J., J. B. Reid. 1988. A conceptual model of changes in soil structure under different cropping systems. Adv. Soil Sci. 8:123–149.
Gifford, R. O., D. F. Thran. 1974. Bonding mechanisms for soil crusts: Part II. Strength of silica cementation. In: J. W. Cary, D. D. Evans (eds.), Soil crusts. Tech. Bull. 214, Agric. Res. Stn., Univ. Ariz., Tucson.
Goss, M. J., W. Ehlers, F. R. Boone, I. White, K. R. House. 1984. Effects of soil management practice on soil physical conditions affecting root growth. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 30:131–140.
Grant, C.D. 1989. Soil structure and tensile strength in relation to the microtopography of soil fracture surfaces. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Dept. Soil Sci., Waite Agric. Res. Inst., Univ. of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.
Grant, C.D., A. R. Dexter. 1989. Generation of microcracks in moulded soils by rapid wetting. Aust. J. Soil Res. 27:169–182.
Grant, C. D., B. D. Kay, P. H. Groenevelt, G. E. Kidd, and G. W. Thurtell. 1985. Spectral analysis of micropenetrometer data to characterize soil structure. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 65:789–804.
Greacen, E. L. 1958. The soil structure under pastures. Aust. J. Soil Res. 9:129–137.
Greacen, E. L., D. A. Farrell, , B. Cockroft. 1968. Soil resistance to metal probes and plant roots. Trans. 9th Int. Cong. Soil Sci., Adelaide, vol. 1. Angus and Robertson, Sydney, Australia, pp. 769–779.
Greenland, D. J., D. Rimmer, D. Payne. 1975. Determination of the structural stability class of English and Welsh soils, using a water coherence test. J. Soil Sci. 26:294–303.
Gregorich, E., R. G. Kachanoski, R. P. Voroney. 1988. Ultrasonic dispersion of aggregates: Distribution of organic matter in size fractions. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 68:395–403.
Grevers, M. C G., E. de Jong. 1988. The use of differential imagery in the characterization of soil macrostructure. In: Abstracts, Canad. Soc. Soil Sci. Ann. Meet., Univ. of Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Groenevelt, P. H., B. D. Kay. 1981. On pressure distribution & effective stress in unsaturated soils. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 61:431–143.
Groenevelt, P. H., B. D. Kay, C. D. Grant, 1984. Physical assessment of a soil with respect to rooting potential. Geoderma 34:101–114.
Guerif, J. 1988. Résistance en traction des agrégats terreus: Influence de la texture de la mtière organique et de la teneur en eau. Agronomie 8:379–386.
Guidi, G., G. Poggio, G. Petruzelli. 1985. The porosity of soil aggregates from bulk soil and soil adhering to roots. Plant Soil 87:311–314.
Gumbel, E. J. 1960. Statistics of extremes. Columbia Univ. Press, NY. Hadas, A. 1987a. Dependence of “true” surface energy of soils on air entry pore size and chemical constituents. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 51:187–191.
Hadas, A. 1987b. Long-term tillage practice effects on soil aggregation modes and strength. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 51:191–197.
Hakansson, I. 1985. Swedish experiments on sub-soil compaction by vehicles with high axle load. Soil Use Mgt. 1:113–116.
Hakansson, I., W. B. Voorhees, , H. Riley. 1988. Vehicle and wheel factors influencing soil compaction and crop response in different traffic regimes. Soil Tillage Res.11:239–282.
Hamblin, A. 1985. The influence of soil structure on water movement, crop growth and water uptake. Adv. Agron. 38:95–155.
Hantschel, R., M. Kaupenjohann, R. Horn, J. Gradl, and W. Zech. 1988. Ecologically important differences between equilibrium and percolation soil extracts, Bavaria. Geoderma 43:213–227.
Hardan, A., A. N. Al-Ani. 1978. Improvement of soil structure by using date and sugar beet waste products. In: W. W. Emerson, R. D. J. Bond, A. R. Dexter (eds.), Modification of soil structure. Wiley, Chichester, England.
Harris, R. F., G. Chesters, O. N. Allen. 1966. Dynamics of soil aggregation. Adv. Agron. 18:107–169.
Heinonen, R. 1977. Towards a a “normal” soil bulk density. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 41:1214–1215.
Heinonen, R. 1982. Alleviation of soil compaction by natural forces and cultural practices. In: Proc. Int. Conf. Land Clearing and Development, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Helal, H. M., D. R. Sauerbeck. 1984. Influence of plant roots on C and P metabolism in soil. Plant Soil 76:175–182.
Hetier, J. M., F. Andreux, E. Schouller, C. Marol. 1986. Organic matter inputs to soil after growth of carbon- 14-nitrogen-15 labelled maize. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 50:76–80.
Hettiaratchi, D. 1988. Theoretical soil mechanics and implement design. Soil Tillage Res. 11:325–348.
Horn, R., A. R. Dexter. 1989. E)ynamics of soil aggregation in an irrigated desert loess. Soil Tillage Res. 13:253–266.
Horn, R., P. S. Blackwell, R. White. 1988, The effect of stress duration on the pressure transmission in an ameliorated red-brown earth under irrigation. In: Proc 11th Int. Conf. Int. Soil and Tillage Res. Org., Edinburgh, Scotland, vol. 2, pp. 492–498.
Hundal, S. S., G. O. Schwab, G. S. Taylor. 1976. Drainage system effects on physical properties of a lakebed clay soil. Soil Set. Soc. Amer. J. 40:300–305.
Ingles, O. G. 1962. Bonding forces in soils. Part III: A theory of tensile strength for stabilized and naturally coherent soils. Proc. Aust. Rd. Res. Bd. 1(2): 1025–1047.
Jastrow, J. D. 1987. Changes in soil aggregation associated with tallgrass prairie restoration. Amer. J. Bot. 74:1656–1664.
Jenkinson, D. S., J. H. Rayner. 1977. The turnover of soil organic matter in some of the Rothamsted classical experiments. Soli Sci. 123:298–305.
Johnston, A. E. 1986. Soil organic matter, effects on soils & crops. Soil Use Mgt. 2:97–105.
Katou, H, K. Miyaji, T. Kubota. 1987. Susceptibility of undisturbed soils to compression as evaluated from the changes in the soil water characteristic curves. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 33:539–554.
Kay, B. D., E. Perfect. 1988. State of the art: heat and mass transfer in freezing soils. In: Proc. 5th Int. Symp. Ground Freezing, Nottingham, UK, vol. 1, pp. 3–22.
Kay, B. D., C. D. Grant, P. H. Groenevelt. 1985. Significance of ground freezing on soil bulk density under zero tillage. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 49:973–978.
Kay, B. D., D. A. Angers, P. H. Groenevelt, J. A. Baldock. 1988. Quantifying the influence of cropping history on soil structure. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 68:359–368.
Kemper, W. D., R. C. Rosenau. 1984. Soil cohesion as affected by time & water content. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 48:1001–1006.
Kemper, W. D., R. C. Rosenau, A. R. Dexter. 1987. Cohesion development in disrupted soils as affected by clay and organic matter content and temperature. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 51:860–867.
Kemper, W. D., M. Bullock, A. R. Dexter. 1988. Soil cohesion changes, pp. 81–95. In: W. E. Larson et al. (eds.), Mechanics and related processes in structured agricultural soils. Kluwer Acad. Publ., Boston, MA.
Kirby, P. C., G. R. Mehuys. 1987. Seasonal variation of soil erodibilities in southwestern Quebec. J. Soil Water Conserv. 42:211–215.
Kladivko, E. J., A. D. Mackay, J. M. Bradford. 1986. Earthworms as a factor in the reduction of soil crusting. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 50:191–196.
Knapp, E. B., L. F. Elliott, G. S. Campbell. 1983. Carbon, nitrogen and microbial biomas interrelationships during the decomposition of wheat straw: a mechanistic simulation model. Soil Biol. Biochem. 15:455–461.
Koolen, A. J., H. Kuipers. 1983. Agricultural soil mechanics. Springer-Verlag, NY.
Kretschmer, A. 1982. Description des galerres des vers de terre et variation saisonniere des reseaux (observation en conditions naturelles). Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 19:579–591.
Lal, P., G. F. Wilson, and B. N. Okigbo. 1979. Changes in properties of an alfisol produced by various cover crops. Soil Sci. 127:377–382.
Ladd, C. C. 1960. Mechanisms of swelling by compacted clay. Bull. 245, Highway Res. Bd., Washington, DC, pp. 10–26.
Larson, W. E., S. C. Gupta, R. A. Useche. 1980. Compression of agricultural soils from eight soil orders. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 44:450–457.
Lee, K. E. 1985. Earthworms: Their ecology and relationships with soils and land use. Academic Press, Sydney, Australia.
Letey, J. 1985. Relationship between soil physical properties and crop productions, pp. 277–294. In: B. A. Stewart (ed.), Advances in Soil Science, vol. 1. Springer-Verlag, NY.
Linell, K. A., C. W. Kaplar. 1959. The factor of soil and material type in frost action. Bull. 255, Highway Res. Bd., Washington, DC, pp. 81–125.
Logsdon, S. D., J. C. Parker, R. B. Reneau. 1987. Root growth as influenced by aggregate size. Plant Soil 99:267–275.
Low, A. J. 1955. Improvements in the structural state of soil under leys. J. Soil Sci. 6:177–199.
Low, A. J. 1972. The effect of cultivation on the structure & other physical properties of grassland and arable soils (1945–1970). J. Soil Sci. 23:363–380.
Low, P. F. 1980. The swelling of clay: II Montmorillonites. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 44:667–676.
Lynch, J. M. 1984. Interactions between biological processes, cultivation & soil structure. Plant Soil 76:307–318.
Lynch, J. M., L. M. Panting. 1980. Cultivation and the soil biomas. Soil BiolBiochem. 12:29–33.
Mann, L. K. 1986. Changes in soil carbon storage after cultivation. Soil Sci. 142:279–288.
McGaw, R. 1972. Frost heaving versus depth to water table. Highw. Res. Rec. 393:45–55.
McGill, W. B., K. R. Cannon, J. R. Robertson, F. D. Cook. 1986. Dynamics of soil microbial biomass and water soluble organic C in Breton L after 50 years of cropping to two rotations. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 66:1–19.
McKenzie, B. M., A. R. Dexter. 1985. Mellowing & anisotropy induced by wetting of moulded soil samples. Aust. J. Soil Res. 23:37–47.
McKenzie, B. M., A. R. Dexter. 1988. Radial pressures generated by the earthworm Aporrectodea rosea. Biol. Fertil. Soils 5:328–332.
Merckx, R., A. den Hortog, J. A. van Veen. 1985. Turnover of root-derived material and related microbial biomass formation in soils of different texture. Soil Biol. Biochem. 17:565–569.
Mermut, A. R., R. J. St. Amaud. 1981. Microband fabric in seasonally frozen soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 45:578–586.
Metting, B. 1986. Population dynamics of Chlamydomonas sajao and its influence on soil aggregate stabilization in the field. Appl. Envir. Microbiol. 51:1161–1164.
Miller, R. D. 1980. Freezing phenomena in soils, pp. 254–299. In: D. Hillel (ed.), Applications of soil physics. Academic Press, NY.
Miller, W. P., M. K. Baharuddin. 1986. Relationship of soil dispersibility to infiltration and erosion of southeastern soils. Soil Sci. 142:235–240.
Mirreh, H. F., J. W. Ketcheson. 1973. Influence of soil water matric potential and resistance to penetration on corn root elongation. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 53:383–388.
Misra, R. K., A. R. Dexter, A. M. Alston. 1986. Maximum axial and radial growth pressures of plant roots. Plant Soil 95:315–326.
Misra, R. K., A. M. Alston, A. R. Dexter. 1988. Root growth and phosphorus uptake in relation to the size and strength of soil aggregates. I: Experimental studies. Soil Tillage Res. 11:103–116.
Mitchell, J. K . 1960. Fundamental aspects of thixotropy in soils. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Amer. Soc. Civil Eng. 86(SM3): 19–52.
Mitchell, J. K. 1976. Fundamentals of soil behaviour. Wiley, NY. Mokhtaruddin, M. de Boodt. 1983. Evaluation of sensitivity to slaking by bulk densitymeasurements of disrupted fragments (aggregates). Pertanika 6:90–94.
Molope, M. B. 1987. Soil aggregate stability: the contribution of biological and physical processes. S. Afr. J. Plant Soil 43:121–126.
Molope, M. B., E. R. Page. 1986. The contribution of fungi, bacteria and physical processes in the development of aggregate stability of a cultivated soil. Biol. Agr. Hort. 3:233–249.
Molope, M. B., I. C. Grieve, E. R. Page. 1985. Thixotropic changes in the stability of molded soil aggregates. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 49:979–983.
Morgenstern, N. R., J. F. Nixon. 1971. One-dimensional consolidation of thawing soils. Canad. Geotech. J. 8:558–565.
Muneer, M., J. M. Oades. 1989a. The role of Ca-organic interactions in soil aggregate stability. 1: Laboratory studies with l4C-glucose, CaCO3 and CaSO4.-2H2O. Aust. J. Soil Res. (in press).
Muneer, M., J. M. Qades. 1989b. The role of Ca-organic interactions in soil aggregate stability. 2: Field studies with 14C-Iabelled straw, CaC03 and CaSO4.-2H2O.Aust. J. Soil Res. (in press).
Muneer, M., J. M. Oades. 1989c. The role of Ca-organic interactions in soil aggregate stability. 3: Mechanisms and models. Aust. J. Soil Res. (in press).
Nagasawa, T., Y. Umeda. 1985. Effects of the freeze-thaw process on soil structure. In: Proc. 4th Int. Symp. Ground Freezing, Sapporo, Japan, vol. II, pp. 219–230.
Nikiforoff, C. C. 1941. Morphological classification of soil structure. Soil Sci. 52:193–212.
Oades, J. M. 1984. Soil organic matter and structural stability: mechanism and implications for management. Plant Soil 76:319–337.
Oades, J. M., A. G. Waters, A. M. Vassallo, M. A. Wilson, G. P. Jones. 1988. Influence of management on the composition of organic matter in a red-brown earth as shown by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance. Aust. J. Soil Res. 26:289–299.
Ojeniyi, S. O., A. R. Dexter. 1979a. Soil factors affecting the macrostructures produced by tillage. Trans. Amer. Soc. Agric. Eng. 22:339–343.
Ojeniyi, S. O., A. R. Dexter. 1979b. Soil structural changes during multiple pass tillage. Trans. Amer. Soc. Agric. Eng. 22:1068–1072.
Page, E. R. 1982. Soil conditioners. Sci. Hort. 33:1–13.
Pagliai, M., G. Guidi, M. La Marca, M. Giachetti, G. Lucanante. 1981. Effects of sewage sludges and compost on soil porosity and aggregation. J. Envir. Qual. 10:556–561.
Panabokke, C. R., J. P. Quirk. 1957. Effect of initial water content on the stability of soil aggregates in water. Soil Sci. 83:185–189.
Parton, W. J., D. S. Schimel, C. V. Cole, D. S. Ojima. 1987. Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in Great Plains grasslands. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 51:1173–1179.
Pawluk, S. 1988. Freeze-thaw effects on granular structure reorganization for soil materials of varying texture and moisture content. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 68:485–194.
Perfect, E., B. D. Kay, W. K. P. van Loon, R. W. Sheard, T. Pojasok. 1989a. Seasonal variation in soil structural stability under forages compared to corn. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. (in press).
Perfect, E., B. D. Kay, W. K. P. van Loon, R. W. Sheard, T. Pojasok. 1989b. Rates of change in soil structural stability under forages compared to corn. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. (in press).
Power, J. F. 1987. The role of legumes in conservation tillage systems. Soil Cons. Soc. Amer., Ankenny, IA.
Powlson, D. S. 1980. The effects of grinding on microbial and non-microbial organic matter in soil. J. Soil Sci. 31:77–85.
Quirk, J. P., B. G. Williams. 1974. The disposition of organic materials in relation to stable aggregation. Trans. 10th Cong., Int. Soc. Soil Sci., Moscow, vol. 1, pp. 165–173.
Ramsay, A. J., R. E. Stannard, G. J. Churchman. 1986. Effect of conversion from ryegrass pasture to wheat cropping on aggregation and bacterial populations in a silt loam soil in New Zealand. Aust. J. Soil Res. 24:253–264.
Reid, J. B., M. J. Goss. 1982. Interactions between soil drying due to plant water use and decreases in aggregate stability caused by maize roots. J. Soil Sci. 33:47–53.
Reid, J. B., M. J. Goss, P. D. Robertson. 1982. Relationship between the decrease in soil stability affected by the growth of maize roots and changes in organically bound iron and aluminium. J. Soil Sci. 33:397–410.
Rengasamy, P., R. S. B. Greene, G. W. Ford, A. H. Mehanni. 1984. Identification of dispersive behaviour and management of red-brown earths. Aust. J. Soil Res. 22 413–431.
Rengasamy, P., R. S. B. Greene, G. W. Ford. 1986. Influences of magnesium on aggregate stability in sodic red-brown earths. Aust. J. Soil Res. 24:229–237.
Rovira, A. D., E. L. Greacen. 1957. The effect of aggregate disruption on the activity of microorganisms in soil. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 8:659–673.
Schubler, Prof. 1840. On the physical properties of soil, and on the means of investigating them. J. R. Agric. Soc. 1:177–218.
Scott. T. W., J. Mt. Pleasant, R. F. Burt, D. J. Otis. 1987. Contributions of ground cover, dry matter, and nitrogen from intercrops and cover crops in a corn polyculture system. Agron. J. 79:792–798.
Scott Russell, R. 1977. Plant root systems. McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead, UK.
Shanmuganathan, R. T., and J. M. Oades. 1982. Effect of dispersible clay on the physical properties of the B horizon of a red-brown earth. Aust. J. Soil Res. 20:315–324.
Shanmuganathan, R. T., J. M. Oades. 1983a. Influence of anions on dispersion and physical properties of the A horizon of a red-brown earth. Geoderma 29:257–277.
Shanmuganathan, R. T., J. M. Oades. 1983b. Modification of soil physical properties by addition of calcium compounds. Aust. J. Soil Res. 21:285–300.
Shaviv, A., I. Ravina, D. Zaslavsky. 1987. Application of soil conditioner solutions to soil columns to increase water stability of aggregates. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 51:431–436.
Shiel, R. S., M. A. Adey, M. Lodder. 1988. The effect of successive wet/dry cycles on aggregate size distribution in a clay texture soil. J. Soil Sci. 39: 71–80.
Shipitalo, M. J., R. Protz, 1987. Comparison of morphology and porosity of a soil under conventional and zero tillage. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 67:445–456.
Shipitalo, M. J., R. Protz. 1988. Factors influencing the dispersibility of clay in worm casts. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 52:764–769.
Shipitalo, M. J., R. Protz, A. D. Tomlin. 1988. Effect of diet on the feeding and casting activity of Lumbricus Terrestris andL. Rubellus in laboratory culture. Soil Biol. Biochem. 20:233–237.
Sillanpaa, M., L. R. Webber. 1961. The effect of freeze-thawing and wetting-drying cycles on soil aggregation. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 41:182–187.
Skidmore, E. L., D. H. Powers. 1982. Dry soil aggregate stability: energy based index. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 46:1274–1279.
Skjemstad, J. O., R. C. Dalai. 1987. Spectroscopic and chemical differences in organic matter of two vertisols subjected to long periods of cultivation. Aust. J. Soil Res. 25:323–335.
Skjemstad, J. O., R. C. Dalal, P. F. Baron. 1986. Spectroscopic investigations of cultivation effects on organic matter of vertisols. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 50:354–359.
Soane, B. D. (ed.) 1982. Compaction by agricultural vehicles: a review. Scottish Inst, of Agric. Eng., Penicuik, Scotland.
Spoor, G . 1988. Improving the effectiveness of tillage operations. In: Proc. Soil Mgt. ’88, Darling Downs Inst. Adv. Educ, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia.
Spoor, G., S. M. Miller, H. T. Breay. 1988. Timeliness and machine performance benefits from controlled traffic systems in sugar beet. pp. 317–322. In: Proc. 11th Conf. Int. Soil Tillage Res. Org., Edinburgh, Scotland, vol. 1.
SSSA. 1975. Soil Conditioners. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., Madison, WI.
Stefanson, R. C . 1968. Factors determining the seasonal changes in the stabilities of soil aggregates. Trans. 9th Cong. Int. Soil Sci. Soc, Adelaide, vol. 2. Angus and Robertson, Sydney, Australia, pp. 395–402.
Stengel, P . 1988. Cracks formation during swelling: effects on soil structure regeneration after compaction, pp. 147–152. In: Proc. 11th Conf. Int. Soil Tillage Res. Org., Edinburgh, Scotland, vol. 1.
Stone, J. A., B. R. Buttery. 1989. Nine forages and the aggregation of a clay loam soil. Can. J. Soil Sci. 69:165–169.
Stone, J. A., N. H. E. Allen, C. D. Grant. 1985. Corn fertility treatments and the surface structure of a poorly drained soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 49:1001–1004.
Stypa, M., A. Nunez-Barrios, D. A. Berry, M. H. Miller, W. A. Mitchell. 1987. Effects of sub-soil bulk density, nutrient availability and soil moisture on corn root growth in the field. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 67:293–308.
Taylor, J. H. 1987. A rationale for controlled traffic research. Acta Hort. 210:9–18.
Taylor, J. H., E. C. Burt. 1987. Total axle load effects on soil compaction. J. Terramechanics 24:179–186.
Terpstra. R . 199. Formation of new aggregates under laboratory-simulated field conditions. Soil Tillage Res. 13:13–21.
Thomasson, A. J. 1978. Towards an objective classification of soil structure. J. Soil Sci. 29:38–46.
Tiessen, H., J. W. B. Stewart, H. Hunt. 1984. Concepts of soil organic matter transformations in relation to organo-mineral plarticle size fractions. Plant Soil 76:287–295.
Tisdall, J. M., H. H. Adem. 1986. Effect of water content of soil at tillage on size-distribution of aggregates and infiltration. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 26:193–195.
Tisdall, J. M., J. M. Oades. 1980a. The management of ryegrass to stabilize aggregates of a red-brown earth. Aust. J. Soil Res. 18:415–422.
Tisdall, J. M., J. M. Oades. 1980b. The effect of crop rotation on aggregation in a red-brown earth. Aust. J. Soil Res. 18:423–433.
Tisdall, J. M., J. M. Oades. 1982. Organic matter and water stable aggregates in soils. J. Soil Sci. 33:141–163.
Tisdall, J. M., B. Cockroft, N. C. Uren. 1978. The stability of soil aggregates as affected by organic materials, microbial activity and physical disruption. Aust. J. Soil Res. 16:9–17.
Toogood, J. A., D. L. Lynch. 1959. Effect of cropping systems and fertilizers on mean weight-diameter of aggregates of Breton plot soils. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 39:151–156.
Towner, G. D. 1986. The influence of particle size distribution on soil physical properties. J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 106:527–535.
Towner, G. D. 1987. The tensile stress generated in clay during drying. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 37:279–289.
Towner, G. D. 1988. The influence of sand and silt-sized particles on the cracking during drying of small clay-dominated aggregates. J. Soil Sci. 39:347–356.
Tu, J. D., S. C. Tan. 1988. Soil compaction effect on photosynthesis, root rot severity and growth of white beans. Canad. J. Soil Sci. 68:455–457.
Tullberg, J. N . 1988. Controlled traffic in sub-tropical grain production, pp. 323–327. In: Proc. 11th Conf. Intl. Soil Tillage Res. Org., Edinburgh, Scotland, vol. 1.
Utomo, W. H., A. R. Dexter. 1981a. Tilth mellowing. J. Soil Sci. 32:187–201.
Utomo, W. H., A. R. Dexter. 1981b. Age hardening of agricultural top soils. J. Soil Sci. 32:335–350.
Utomo, W. H., A. R. Dexter. 1981c. Soil friability. J. Soil Sci. 32:203–213.
Utomo, W. H., and A. R. Dexter. 1982. Changes in soil aggregate water stability induced by wetting and drying cycles in non-saturated soil. J. Soil Sci. 33:623–637.
van Bavel, C. H. M., F. W. Schaller. 1950. Soil aggregation, organic matter and yields in a long-term experiment as affected by crop management. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 15:399–404.
van der Linden, A. M. A., J. A. van Veen, and M. J. Frissel. 1987. Modelling soil organic matter levels after long-term applications of crop residues, and farmyard and green manures. Plant Soil 101:21–28.
van Ouwerkerk, C. 1968. Two model experiments on the durability of subsoil compaction. Neth. J. Agric. Sci. 16:204–210.
Voorhees, W. B. 1983. Relative effectiveness of tillage and natural forces in alleviating wheel-induced soil compaction. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 47:129–133.
Voorhees, W. B., M. J. Lindstrom. 1984. Long-term effects of tillage method on soil tilth independent of wheel traffic compaction. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 48:152–156.
Voorhees, W. B., C. G. Senst, W. W. Nelson. 1978. Compaction and soil structure modification by wheel traffic in the northern corn belt. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 42:344–349.
Warren, S. D. 1987. Soil hydrologic response to intensive rotation grazing: a state of knowledge, pp. 488–501. In: Y. S. Fok (ed.), Proc. Int. Conf. on Infiltration Development and Application. Water Resources Res. Center, Univ. of Hawaii.
Warren, S. D., T. L. Thurow, W. H. Blackburn, N. E. Garza. 1986. The influence of livestock trampling under intensive rotation grazing on soil hydrologic characteristics. J. Range Mgt. 39:491–495.
Willis, W. 1955. Freezing and thawing, and wetting and drying in soils treated with organic chemicals. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 19:263–267.
Yamada, S. 1955. Investigation on freezing and thawing actions of volcanogenous soils and their influences upon soils and crops, pt. 1. Soil and Plant Food 1:84–87.
Yeoh, N. S., J. M. Oades. 1981. Properties of clays and soils after acid treatment, II: Urrbrae fine sandy loam. Aust. J. Soil Res. 19:159–166.
Zachman, J. E., D. R. Linden, C. E. Clapp. 1987. Macroporous infiltration and redistribution as affected by earthworms, tillage and residue. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 51:1580–1586.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1990 Springer-Verlag New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kay, B.D. (1990). Rates of Change of Soil Structure Under Different Cropping Systems. In: Stewart, B.A. (eds) Advances in Soil Science 12. Advances in Soil Science, vol 12. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3316-9_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3316-9_1
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-7964-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-3316-9
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive