Abstract
Acute hepatitis may be caused by a number of infectious and noninfectious etiologies. Among the viruses, a continually expanding list of organisms are being identified. This is due, in part, to rapidly developing advances in molecular biology where now minute quantities of viral load can be amplified, sequenced, and immunologically identified. Many of these agents, when retrospectively analyzed, were responsible for hepatitis outbreaks in years past. Clinically, most of these infections cannot be distinguished from one another during their acute presentation. Variations do exist in incubation periods, modes of transmission, fulminance, and effects during pregnancy. This chapter deals with hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. Other agents such as cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus are also associated with hepatic involvement and are discussed in other chapters.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Blumer G. Infectious jaundice in the United States. JAMA. 1923; 81: 353–358.
Havens WP Jr. Properties of the etiologic agent of infectious hepatitis.Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1945; 58: 203–204.
Feinstone SM, Kapikian AZ, Purcell RH. Hepatitis A: Detection by immune electron microscopy of a viruslike antigen associated with acute illness. Science. 1973;182:1026–1028.
Dienstag JL, Feinstone SM, Kapikian AZ, et al. Faecal shedding of hepatitis A antigen. Lancet. 1975; 1: 765–767.
Siegl G, Frosner GG. Characterization and classification of virus particles asssociated with hepatitis A. I. Size, density, and sedimentation. J Virol 1978; 26: 40–47.
Schulman AN, Dienstag JL, Jackson DR, et al. Hepatitis A antigen particles in liver, bile, and stool of chimpanzees. J Infect Dis. 1976; 134: 80–84.
Provost PJ, Hilleman MR. Propagation of human hepatitis A virus in cell culture in vitro. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1979;160:213–221.
Mathiesen LR, Drucker J, Lorenz D, et al. Localization of hepatitis A antigen in marmoset organs during acute infection with hepatitis A virus. J Infect Dis. 1978;138:369– 377.
Provost PJ, Ittensohn OL, Villarejos VM, et al. Etiologic relationship of marmoset-propagated CR326 hepatitis A virus to hepatitis in man. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1973;142:1257–1267.
McCaustland KA, Bond WW, Bradley DW, et al. Survival of hepatitis A virus in feces after drying and storage for one month. J Clin Microbiol. 1982; 16: 957–958.
Siegl G. Structure and biology of hepatitis A virus. In: Szmuness W, Alter HJ, Maynard JE, eds. Viral Hepatitis. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute Press; 1982: 13–20.
Provost PJ, Wolanski BS, Miller WJ, et al. Physical, chemical and morphologic dimensions of human hepatitis strain CR326. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1975; 148: 532–539.
Krugman S, Giles JP, Hammond J. Hepatitis virus: Effect of heat on the infectivity and antigenicity of the MS-1 and MS-2 strain. J Infect Dis. 1970; 122: 423–436.
Ping L-H, Lemon SM. Antigenic structure of human hepatitis A virus defined by analysis of escape mutants selected against murine monoclonal antibodies. J Virol. 1992; 66: 2208–2216.
Robertson BH, Jansen RW, Khanna B, et al. Genetic relatedness of hepatitis A virus strains recovered from different geograpic regions. J Gen Virol. 1992; 73: 1365–1377.
Arankalle VA, Ticehurst J, Sreenivasan MA, et al. Etiologic association of a viruslike particle with enterically-transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis. Lancet. 1988; 1: 550–554.
Hoofnagle JH, Ponzetto A, Mathiesen LR, et al. Serologic diagnosis of acute viral hepatits. Dig Dis Sci. 1985; 30: 1022–1027.
Gust ID. Comparison of the epidemiology of hepatitis A and B. In: Szmuness W, Alter HJ, Maynard JE, eds. Viral Hepatitis. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute Press; 1982: 129–143.
Mosley JW . Water-borne infectious hepatitis. N Engl J Med. 1959;261:703-708,748–753.
Mosley JW, Schrack WD Jr, Densham TW, et al. Infectious hepatitis in Clearfield County, Pennsylvania. I. A probable water-borne epidemic. Am J Med. 1959; 26: 555–558.
Morse LJ, Bryan JW, Hurley JP, et al. The Holy Cross College football team hepatitis outbreak. JAMA. 1972; 219: 706–708.
Ruddy SJ, Johnson RF, Mosley JW, et al. An epidemic of clam-associated hepatitis. JAMA. 1969; 208: 649–655.
Mackowiak PA, Caraway CT, Portnoy BL. Oyster-associated hepatitis: Lessons from the Louisiana experience. Am J Epidemiol. 1976; 103: 181–191.
Levy BS, Fontaine RE, Smith CA, et al. A large food-borne outbreak of hepatitis A: Possible transmission via oropharyngeal secretions. JAMA. 1975; 234: 289–294.
Meyers JD, Romm FJ, Tihen WS, et al. Food-borne hepatitis A in a general hospital: Epidemiologic study of an outbreak attrib-uted to sandwiches. JAMA. 1975;231:1049–1053.
Purcell RH, Feinstone, SM, Ticehurst JR, et al. Hepatitis A virus. In: Vyas GN, Dienstag JL, Hoofnagle JH, eds. Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease. Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton; 1984: 9–22.
Margolis HS, Naiman OV. Identification of hepatitis A viral capsid proteins in immune complexes isolated during hepatitis A infection. J Med Virol. 1987; 22: 20A.
Kurane I, Binn LN, Bancroft WH, et al. Human lymphocyte responses to hepatitis A virus-infected cells: Interferon production and lysis of infected cells. J Immunol. 1985; 135: 2140–2144.
Zachoval R, Abb J, Zachoval V, et al. Circulating interferon in patients with acute hepatitis A. J Infect Dis. 1986; 153: 1174–1175.
Lemon SM. Type A viral hepatitis. New developments in an old disease. N Engl J Med. 1985; 313: 1059–1067.
Krugman S, Ward R, Giles JP. The natural history of infectious hepatitis. Am J Med. 1962; 32: 717–728.
Routenberg JA, Dienstag JL, Harrison WO, et al. A food borne outbreak of hepatitis A: Clinical and laboratory features of acute and protracted illness. Am J Med Sci. 1979; 278: 123–137.
Inman RD, Hodge M, Johnston MEA, et al. Arthritis, vasculitis, and cryoglobulinemia associated with relapsing hepatitis A virus infection. Ann Intern Med. 1986; 105: 700–703.
Hallam A, Kerlin P. Viral hepatitis A to E. An update. Aust Fam Phys. 1991; 20: 760–770.
Hirvioja M-L, Tuimala R, Vuori J. The treatment of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy by dexamethasone. Br J Obstet Gynecol. 1992; 99: 109–111.
Gust ID . The epidemiology of viral hepatitis. In: Vyas GN, Dienstag JL, Hoofnagle JH, eds. Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease. Orlando, FL; Grune & Stratton; 1984:415–418.
Borhanmanesh F, Haghig P, Hekmat K, et al. Viral hepatitis during pregnancy: Severity and effect on gestation. Gastroenterology. 1973; 64: 304–312.
Khuroo MS, Teli MR, Skidmore S, et al. Incidence and severity of viral hepatitis in pregnancy. Am J Med. 1981; 70: 252–255.
Shwer M, Moosa A. The effects of hepatitis A and B in pregnancy on mother and fetus. S Afr Med J. 1978; 54: 1092–1095.
Tong MJ, Thursby M, Rakela J, et al. Studies on the maternal-infant transmission of the viruses which cause acute hepatitis. Gastroenterology. 1981; 80: 999–1004.
Rosenblum LS, Villarino ME, Nainan OV, et al. Hepatitis A outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit: Risk factors for transmission and evidence of prolonged viral excretion among preterm infants. J Infect Dis. 1991; 164: 476–482.
Zhang RL, Zeng JS, Zhang HZ. Survey of 34 pregnant women with hepatitis A and their neonates. Chin Med J (Engl). 1990;103:552–555.
Zhuang YL. Acute hepatitis A in pregnancy: A report of 43 cases. Chung-Hua Fu Chan Ko Tsa Chih. 1989; 24: 136–138.
Centers for Disease Control. Protection against viral hepatitis. Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Com-mittee (ACIP). Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1990; 39 (RR-2): 1–26.
Duermeyer W, Wielaard F, van der Veen J. A new principle for the detection of specific IgM antibodies applied in an ELISA for hepatitis A.J Med Virol 1979; 4: 25–32.
Kao HW, Ashcavai M, Redeker AG. The persistence of hepatitis A IgM antibody after acute clinical hepatitis A virus. Hepatology. 1984; 4: 933–936.
Lemon SM. Inactivated hepatitis A virus vaccines. Hepatology. 1992; 15: 1194–1197.
Stapleton JT, Jansen RW, Lemon SM. Neutralizing antibody to hepatitis A virus in immune serum globulin and in the sera of human recipients of immune serum globulin. Gastroenterology. 1985; 89: 637–642.
Fujiyama S, Iino S, Odoh K, et al. Time course of hepatitis A virus antibody titer after active and passive immunization. Hepatology. 1992; 15: 983–988.
Blumberg BS, Alter HJ, Visnich S. A “new” antigen in leukemia sera. JAMA. 1965; 191: 541–546.
Alter HJ, Blumberg BS. Further studies on a new human isoprecipitin system (Australia antigen). Blood. 1966; 27: 297–309.
Bayer ME, Blumberg BS, Werner B. Particles associated with Australia antigen in the sera of patients with leukemia, Down’s syndrome, and hepatitis. Nature. 1968;218:1057–1059.
Dane DS, Cameron CH, Briggs M. Virus-like particles in serum of patients with Australia angtigen-associated hepatitis. Lancet. 1970; 2: 695–698.
Magnius LO. Characterization of a new antigen-antibody system associated with hepatitis B. Clin Exp Immunol. 1975; 20: 209–216.
Alter HJ, Seeff LB, Kaplan PM, et al. Type B hepatitis: The infectivity of blood positive for e antigen and DNA polymerase after accidental needlestick exposure. N Engl J Med. 1976; 296: 909–913.
Ohori H, Onodera S, Ishida N. Demonstration of hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) with intact Dane particles. J Gen Virol. 1979; 43: 423–427.
Magnius LO, Lindholm A, Lundin P, et al. A new antigen-antibody system. Clinical significance in long-term carriers of hepatitis B surface antigen. JAMA. 1975; 231: 356–369.
Trepo C, Mangius L, Schaefer RA, et al. Detection and clinical significance of e antigen and antie antibody in hepatits B surface antigen carriers. Gastroenterology. 1975; 69: 872.
Hoofnagle, JH, Seeff LB, Bales ZB, et al. Serologic responses in hepatitis B. In: Vyas GN, Cohen SN, Schmid T, eds. Viral Hepatitis: A Contemporary Assessment of Etiology, Epidmiology, Pathogenesis, and Prevention. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute Press, 1978: 219–242.
Tabor E, Gerety RJ. Possible role of immune response to hepatitis B core antigen in protection against hepatitis B infection. Lancet. 1984; 1: 172.
Murray K, Bruce SA, Hinnen A, et al. Hepatitis B virus antigens made in microbial cells immunise against viral infection. EMBO J. 1984; 3: 645–650.
Prince AM. Mechanism of protection against hepatitis B infection by immunization with hepatitis B virus cores. Lancet. 1984; 1: 512.
Purcell RH, Gerin JL. Hepatitis B subunit vaccine: A preliminary report of safety and efficacy tests in chimpanzees. Am J Med Sci. 1975; 270: 395–399.
Hoofnagle JH. Toward universal vaccination against hepatitis B virus. N Engl J Med. 1989; 321: 1333–1334.
Beasley RP, Hwang LY. Epidemiology of hepatocellular carcinoma. In: Vyas GN, Dienstag JL, Hoofnagle JH, eds. Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease. Proceedings of the 1984 International Symposium on Viral Hepatitis. Orlando, FL: Grune and Stratton; 1984: 209–224.
Beasley RP, Hwang LY, Lin CC, Chien CS. Hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatitis B virus. Lancet. 1981; 2: 1129–1133.
World Health Organization. Prevention of liver cancer: Report of a WHO meeting. WHO Tech Rep Ser. 1988; 691: 8–9.
Stevens CE, Beasley RP, Tsui J, Lee W-C. Vertical transmission of hepatitis B antigen in Taiwan. N Engl J Med. 1975; 292: 771–774.
Stevens CE, Toy PT, Tong MJ, et al. Perinatal hepatitis B virus transmission in the United States: Prevention by passive-active immunization. JAMA. 1985; 253: 1740–1745.
Centers for Disease Control. Inactivated hepatitis B virus vaccine. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1982; 31: 318.
Barker LF, Murray R. Relationship of virus dose to incubation time of clinical hepatitis and time of appearance of hepatitis-associated antigen. Am J Med Sci. 1972; 263: 27–33.
Bancroft WH, Snitbhan R, Scott RM, et al. Transmission of hepatitis B virus to gibbons by exposure to human saliva containing hepatitis B surface antigen. J Infect Dis. 1977; 135: 79–85.
Alter JH, Purcell RH, Gerin JL, et al. Transmission of hepatitis B to chimpanzees by hepatitis B surface antigen-positive saliva and semen. Infect Immun. 1977; 16: 928–933.
Centers of Disease Control. Hepatitis transmitted by a human bite. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1974; 23: 24.
Neefe JR, Gellis SS, Stokes J. Homologous serum hepatitis and infectious (epidemic) hepatitis: Studies in volunteers bearing on immunological and other characteristics of the etiological agents. Am J Med. 1946; 1: 3–22.
Centers for Disease Control. Update on hepatitis B prevention. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1989; 36: 353–360.
Gocke DJ. Type B hepatitis-Good news and bad news. NEngl JMed. 1974; 291: 1409–1114.
Pattison CP, Boyer KM, Maynard JE, Kelly PC. Epidemie hepatitis in a clinical laboratory: Possible association with computer card handling. JAMA. 1974; 230: 854–857.
Mirick GS, Shank RE. An epidemic of serum hepatitis studied under controlled conditions. Trans Am Climatol Assoc. 1959; 71: 176.
Hersh T, Melnick JL, Goyal RK, Hollinger FB. Nonparenteral transmission of viral hepatitis type B (Australia antigen-associated serum hepatitis). N Engl J Med. 1971; 285: 1363–1364.
Szmuness W, Harley EJ, Prince AM. Intrafamilial spread of asymptomatic hepatitis B. Am J Med Sci. 1975; 270: 293–304.
Vechon TM,Wright RA,Merrill DA.Hepatitis A and B in the family unit: nonparenteral transmission by asymptomatic children.JAMA1976;235:2829–2831.
Bernier RH, Sampliner R, Gerety R, Tabor E, Hamilton F, Nathanson N. Hepatitis B infection in households of chronic carriers of hepatitis B surface antigen: Factors associated with prevalence of infection. Am J Epidemiol. 1982; 116: 199–211.
Beasley RP, Hwang LY, Lin CC, et al. Incidence of hepatitis B virus infections in pre-school children in Taiwan. J Infect Dis. 1982; 146: 198–204.
Maupas P, Chiron JP, Barin F, et al. Efficacy of hepatitis B vaccine in prevention of early HBsAg carrier state in children: Controlled trial in an endemic area (Senegal). Lancet. 1981; 1: 289–292.
Gocke JD. Immune complex phenomena associated with hepatitis. In: Vyas GN, Cohen SN, Schmidt R, eds. Viral Hepatitis: A Contemporary Assessment of Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Prevention. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute Press; 1978: 277.
Wands JR, Mann EA, Alpert E, Isselbacher KJ. The pathogenesis of arthritis associated with acute hepatitis B surface antigen positive hepatitis: Complement activation and characterization of circulating immune complexes. J Clin Invest. 1975; 55: 930–936.
Shulman RN. Hepatitis-associated antigen. Am J Med. 1971; 49: 669–692.
Krugman S, Overby LR, Mushahwar IK, Ling CM, Frosher GG, Deinhardt F. Viral hepatitis, type B: Studies on natural history and prevention reexamined. N Engl J Med. 1979; 300: 101–106.
Lander JJ, Giles JP, Purcell RH. Frequency of antibody to hepatitis-associated antigen as measured by a new radioimmunoassay technique. J Immunol. 1971; 106: 1166–1171.
Robinson WS. DNA and DNA polymerase in the core of Dane particles. Am J Med Sci. 1975; 270: 151–159.
Nielsen JO, Nielsen MH, Elling P. Differential distribution of Australia-antigen-associated particles in patients with liver disease and normal carriers. N Engl J Med. 1973; 288: 484–487.
Mills CT, Lee E, Perrillo. Relationship between histology, aminotransferase levels, and viral replication in chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology. 1990; 99: 519–524.
McDonald JA, Caruso L, Karayiannis P, et al. Diminished responsiveness of male chronic hepatitis B carriers with HTLV-III antibodies to recombinant alpha interferon. Hepatology. 1987; 7: 719–723.
Perrillo RP, Regenstein FG, Roodman ST. Chronic hepatitis B in asymptomatic homosexual men with antibody to the human immunodeficiency virus. Ann Intern Med. 1986; 105: 382–383.
Melbye M, Biggar RJ, Ebbesen P, et al. Long-term seropositivity for human T lymphotropic virus type III in homosexual men without the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: Development of immunologic and clinical abnormalities. A longitudinal study. Ann Intern Med. 1986; 104: 496–500.
Liaw YF, Tai DI, Chu CM, et al. The development of cirrhosis in patients with chronic type B hepatitis: A prospective study. Hepatology. 1988; 8: 493–496.
Karrountzis GG, Redeker AG, Peters RL. Long term follow-up studies of patients surviving fulminant viral hepatitis. Gastroenterology. 1974; 67: 870–877.
Horney JT, Galambos JT. The liver during and after fulminant hepatitis. Gastroenterology. 1977; 73: 639–645.
Ware AJ, Eigenbrodt EH, Combes B. Prognostic significance of subacute hepatic necrosis in acute hepatitis. Gastroenterology. 1975; 68: 519–524.
Christie AB, Allam AA, Aref MK, El Muntasser IH, El-Nagel M. Pregnancy hepatitis in Libya. Lancet. 1976; 2: 827–829.
Borhanmanesh F, Haghighi P, Hekmat K, Rezaizadeh K, Ghavami AG. Viral hepatitis during pregnancy: Severity and effect on gestation. Gastroenterology. 1973; 64: 304–312.
Hieber JP, Dalton D, Shorey J, Combes B. Hepatitis and pregnancy. J Pediatr. 1977; 91: 545–549.
Shalev E, Bassan HM. Viral hepatitis during pregnancy in Israel. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1982; 20: 73–78.
Arakawa K, Tsuda F, Takahashi K, et al. Maternofetal transmission of IgG-bound hepatitis e antigen. Pediatr Res. 1982; 16: 247–250.
Lin HH, Lee TY, Chen DS, et al. Transplacental leakage of HBeAg-positive maternal blood as the most likely route in causing intrauterine infection with hepatitis B virus. J Pediatr. 1987; 111: 877–881.
Ohto H, Lin HH, Kawana T, Etoh T, Tohyama H. Intrauterine transmission of hepatitis B virus is closely related to placental leakage. J Med Virol. 1987; 21: 1–6.
Schweitzer IL, Wing A, McPeak C, et al. Hepatitis and hepatitis-associated antigen in 56 mother-infant pairs. JAMA. 1972; 220: 1092–1095.
Okada K, Yamada T, Miyakawa Y, et al. Hepatitis B surface antigen in the serum of infants after delivery from asymptomatic carrier mothers. J Pediatr. 1975; 87: 360–363.
Gerety RJ, Schweitzer IL. Viral hepatitis type B during pregnancy, the neonatal period, and infancy. J Pediatr. 1977; 90: 368–374.
Lee AKY, Ip HMH, Wong VCW. Mechanisms of maternal-fetal transmission of hepatitis B virus. J Infect Dis. 1978; 138: 668–671.
Okada K, Kamiyama I, Inomata M, Imai M, Miyakawa Y, Mayumi M. e antigen and anti-e in the serum of asymptomatic carrier mothers as indicators of positive and negative transmission of hepatitis B virus to their infants. N Engl J Med. 1976; 294: 746–749.
Beasley RP, Trepo C, Stevens CE, Szmuness W. The e antigen and vertical transmission of hepatitis B surface antigen. Am J Epidemiol. 1977; 105: 94–98.
Stevens CE, Toy PT, Tong MJ, et al. Perinatal hepatitis B virus transmission in the United States: Prevention by passive-active immunization. JAMA. 1985; 253: 1740–1745.
Biswas SC, Gupta I, Ganguly NK, Chawla Y, Dilawari JB. Prevalence of hepatitis B surface antigen in pregnant mothers and its perinatal transmission. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1989; 83: 698–700.
Dupuy JM, Frommel D, Alagille D. Severe viral hepatitis B in infancy. Lancet. 1975; 1: 191–194.
Fawaz KA, Grady GF, Kaplan MM, et al. Repetitive maternal-fetal transmission of fetal hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 1975;293:1357– 1359.
Delaplane D, Yogev R, Crussi F, Shulman ST. Fatal hepatitis B in early infancy: The importance of identifying HBsAg-positive pregnant women and providing immunoprophylaxis to their newborns. Pediatrics. 1983; 72: 176–180.
Chang MH, Chen DS, Hsu HC, Hsu HY, Lee CY. Maternal transmission of hepatitis B virus in childhood hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer. 1989; 64: 2377–2380.
Perrillo RP, Schiff ER, Davis GL, et al. A randomized controlled trial of interferon alfa-2b alone and after prednisone withdrawal for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 1990; 323: 295–301.
Reesink HW, Reerink-Brongers EE, Lafeber-Schut BJT, Kalshoven-Benschop J, Brummelhuis HGJ. Prevention of chronic HBsAg carrier state in infants of HBsAg- positive mothers by hepatitis B immunoglobulin. Lancet. 1979; 1: 436–438.
Beasley RP, Hwang LY, Lin CC, et al. Hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG) efficacy in the interruption of perinatal transmission of hepatitis B virus carreir state: Initial report of a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 1981; 2: 388–393.
Szmuness W, Stevens CE, Harley EJ, et al. Hepatitis B vaccine: Demonstration of efficacy in a controlled clinical trial in a high-risk population in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1980; 303: 833–841.
Scolnick EM, McLean AA, West DJ, McAleer WJ, Miller WJ, Buynak EB. Clinical evaluation in healthy adults of a hepatitis B vaccine made by recombinant DNA. JAMA. 1984; 251: 2812–2815.
Gerety RJ, Tabor E. Newly licensed hepatitis B vaccine: Known safety and unknown risks. JAMA. 1983; 249: 745–746.
Stevens CE. No increased incidence of AIDS in recipients of hepatitis B vaccine. N Engl J Med. 1983; 308: 1163–1164.
Phillips M, Cummins LM. Absence of sero-conversion following treatment with hepatitis B immune globulin containing antibody to human immunodeficiency virus. Hepatology. 1988; 8: 497–498.
Tada H, Yanagida M, Mishina J, et al. Combined passive and active immunization for preventing perinatal transmission of hepatitis B virus carrier state. Pediatrics. 1982; 70: 613–619.
Beasley RP, Hwang LY, Lee GC, et al. Prevention of perinatally transmitted hepatitis B virus infections with hepatitis B immune globulin and hepatitis B vaccine. Lancet. 1983; 2: 1099–1102.
Wong VCW, Ip HMH, Reesink HW, et al. Prevention of the HBsAg carrier state in newborn infants of mothers who are chronic carriers of HBsAg and HBeAg by administration of hepatitis-B vaccine and hepatitis-B immunoglobulin: Double-blind randomized placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 1984;2:921–926.
Pongpipat D, Suvatte V, Assateerawatts A. Efficacy of hepatitis-B immunoglobulin and hepatitis-B vaccine in prevention of the HBsAg carrier state in newborn infants of mothers who are chronic carrier of HBsAg and HBeAg. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 1986; 4: 33–36.
Xu ZY, Liu CB, Francis DP, et al. Prevention of perinatal acquisition of hepatitis B virus carriage using vaccine: Preliminary report of a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled and comparative trial. Pediatrics. 1985; 76: 713–718.
Schaln SW, Mazel JA, deGast GC, et al. Prevention of hepatitis B infection in new-borns through mass screening and delayed vaccination of all infants of mothers with hepatitis B surface antigen. Pediatrics. 1989; 83: 1041–1048.
Poovorawan Y, Sanpavat S, Pongpunlert W, Chumdermpadetsuk S, Sentrakul P, Safary A. Protective efficacy of a recombinant DNA hepatitis B vaccine in neonates of HBe antigen-positive mothers. JAMA. 1989;269:3278–3281.
Chen DS, Hsu HM, Sung JL, et al. Immunization of newborns of HBsAg-positive mothers: A successful first step in control of hepatitis B virus in Taiwan. Hepatology. 1989;9:900–907.
London WT, O’Connell AP. Transplacental transmission of hepatitis B virus. Lancet. 1986; 1: 1037–1038.
Tang SX, Yu GL. Intrauterine infection with hepatitis B virus. Lancet. 1990; 335: 302.
Li L, Shen MH, Li YQ, et al. A study of mother-infant transmission of hepatitis B virus. Presented at International Symposium on Liver Cancer and Hepatitis; Shanghai; 1986.
Centers for Disease Control. Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee. Prevention of perinatal transmission of hepatitis B virus: Prenatal screening of all pregnant women for hepatitis B surface antigen. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1988; 37: 341–346.
American Academy of Pediatrics: Committee on Infectious Diseases. Universal hepatitis B immunization. Pediatrics. 1992; 89: 795–800.
Desmyter J, Bradbourne AF, Vermylen C, Daniels R, Boelaert J. Hepatitis B immunoglobulin in prevention of HBsAg antigenaemia in haemodialysis patients. Lancet. 1975; 2: 377–379.
Iwarson S, Ahlmen J, Erickson E, et al. Hepatitis B immune serum globulin and standard gamma globulin in prevention of hepatitis B infection among hospital staff: A preliminary report. Am J Med Sci. 1975;270:385– 389.
Grady GF. Viral hepatitis passive prophylaxis with globulins: State of the art in 1978. In: V yas GN, Cohen SN, Schmidt R, eds. Viral Hepatitis: A Contemporary Assessment of Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and PreventionPhiladelphia: Franklin Institute Press; 1978: 467–476.
Szmuness W, Stevens CE, Zange A, et al. A controlled clinical trial on the efficacy of the hepatitis B vaccine (Heptavax B): A final report. Hepatology. 1981; 1: 377–385.
Dienstag JL, et al. Hepatitis B vaccine in health-care personnel: A randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial. Hepatology. 1982; 2: 696.
Francis DP, Hadler SC, Thompson SE, et al. The prevention of hepatitis B with vaccine: Report of the Centers for Disease Control multi-center trial among homosexual men. Ann Intern Med. 1982; 97: 362–366.
Deinhardt F . Aspects of vaccination against hepatitis B: Passive-active immunization schedules and immune responses in different age groups. Scand J Infect Dis. 1983;suppl 38:17–23.
Szmuness W, Stevens CE, Oleszko WR, Goodman A. Passive-active immunization against hepatitis B: Immunogenicity studies in adult Americans. Lancet. 1981; 1: 575–577.
Jilg W, Schmidt M, Deinhardt F, et al. Hepatitis B vaccination: How long does protection last? Lancet. 1984; 2: 458.
Immunization Practices Advisory Committee. Postexposure prophylaxis of hepatitis B. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1984; 33: 285–290.
Malecki JM, Guarin O, Hulbert A, Brum- back CL. Prevalence of hepatitis B surface antigen among women receiving prenatal care at the Palm Beach County Health Department. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986; 154: 625–626.
Kumar ML, Dawson NV, McCullough AJ, et al. Should all pregnant women be screened for hepatitis B. Ann Intern Med. 1987; 107: 273–277.
Jonas MM, Schiff ER, O’Sullivan MJ, et al. Failure of Centers for Disease Control criteria to identify hepatitis B infection in a large municipal obstetrical population. Ann Intern Med. 1987; 107: 335–337.
Summers PR, Biswas MK, Pastorek JG II, Pernoll ML, Smith LG, Bean BE. The pregnant hepatitis B carrier: Evidence favoring comprehensive antepartum screening. Obstet Gynecol 1987; 156: 166–169.
Wetzel AM, Kirz DS. Routine hepatitis screening in adolescent pregnancies: Is it cost effective? AM J Obstet Gynecol. 1987; 156: 166–169.
Butterfield CR, Shockley M, SanMiguel G, Rosa C. Routine screening for hepatitis B in an obstetric population. Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 76: 25–27.
Dinsmoor MJ, Gibbs RS. Prevalence of asymptomatic hepatitis B infection in pregnant Mexican-American women. Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 76: 239–240.
Kane MA, Hadler SC, Margolis HS, Maynard JE. Routine prenatal screening for hepatitis B surface antigen. JAMA. 1988; 259: 408–409.
ACOG Committee Opinion. Guidelines for hepatitis B virus screening and vaccination during pregnancy. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; January 1990: 78.
Arevalo JA, Washington AE. Cost-effectiveness of prenatal screening and immunization for hepatitis B virus. JAMA. 1988; 259: 365–369.
Maynard JE, Kane MA, Hadler SC. Global control of hepatitis B through vaccination: Role of hepatitis B vaccine in the expanded programme on immunization. Rev Infect Dis. 1989; 11 (S3): S574–S578.
Toukan A. Strategy for the control of hepatitis B virus infection in the Middle East and North Africa: The Middle East Regional Study Group. Vaccine. 1990; S8: S117–S121.
Kane MA, Hadler SC, Margolis HS. Prenatal screening for hepatitis B antigen-Reply. JAMA. 1989; 261: 1727–1728.
Beasley RP, Stevens CE. Vertical transmission of HBV and interruption with globulin. In: Vyas GM, Cohen SN, Schmid T, eds. Viral Hepatitis: A Contemporary Assessment of Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis and Prevention. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute Press; 1978: 333–345.
Silverman NS, Darby MJ, Ronkin SL, Wapner RJ. Hepatitis B prevalence in an unregistered prenatal population. JAMA. 1991; 266: 282–285.
Rizzetto M, Canese MG, Arico S, et al. Immunofluorescence detection of new antigen-antibody system (δ/ anti- δ) associated to hepatitis B virus in liver and in serum of HBsAg carriers. Gut. 1977; 18: 997–1003.
Gerken G, Meyer zum Buschenfelde K-H. Chronic hepatitis delta (HDV) infection. Hepatogastroenterology. 1991; 38: 29–32.
Makino S, Chang MF, Shieh CK, et al. Molecular cloning and sequencing of a human hepatitis delta virus RNA. Nature. 1987; 329: 343–346.
Kos A, Dijkema R, Arnberg C, et al. The hepatitis delta virus possesses a circular RNA. Nature. 1986; 323: 558–560.
Wang KS, Choo QL, Weiner AJ, et al. Structure, sequence and expression of the hepatitis delta viral genome. Nature. 1986;323:508–513.
Ponzetto A, Hoofnagle JH, Seeff LB. Anti-body to the hepatitis B virus-associated delta-agent in immune serum globulins. Gastroenterology. 1984; 87: 1213–1216.
Rizzetto M. The delta agent. Hepatology. 1983; 3: 729–737.
Hoofnagle JH. Type D (delta) hepatitis. JAMA. 1989; 261: 1321–1325.
Jacobson IM, Dienstag JL, Werner BG, et al. Epidemiology and clinical impact of hepatitis D virus (delta) infection. Hepatology. 1985; 5: 188–191.
Smedile A, Farci P, Verme G, et al. Influence of delta infection on severity of hepatitis B. Lancet. 1982; 2: 945–947.
Govindarajan S, Chin KP, Redeker AG, et al. Fulminant B viral hepatitis: Role of delta agent. Gastroenterology. 1984; 86: 1717–1720.
Rizzetto M, Verme G, Recchia S, et al. Chronic HBsAg hepatitis with intrahepatic expression of delta antigen. An active and progressive disease unresponsive to immunosuppressive treatment. Ann Intern Med. 1983; 98: 437–441.
Colombo M, Canbieri R, Rumi MG, et al. Long-term delta superinfection in hepatitis B surface antigen carriers and its relationship to the course of chronic hepatitis. Gastroenterology. 1983; 85: 235–239.
Moestrup T, Hansonn BG, Widell A, et al. Clinical aspects of delta infection. Br Med J. 1983; 286: 87–90.
Shattock AG, Irwin FM, Morgan BM, et al. Increased severity and morbidity of acute hepatitis in drug abusers with simultaneously acquired hepatitis B and D virus infections. Br Med J. 1985; 290: 1377–1380.
Novick DM, Farci P, Croxson TS, et al. Hepatitis D virus and human immunodeficiency virus antibodies in parenteral drug abusers who are hepatitis B surface antigen positive. J Infect Dis. 1988; 158: 795–803.
Housset C, Pol S, Carnot F, et al. Interactions between human immunodeficiency virus-1, hepatitis delta virus and hepatitis B virus infection in 260 chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus. Hepatology. 1992; 15: 578–583.
Zanetti RA, Gerroni P, Magliano EM, et al. Perinatal transmission of the hepatitis B virus and of the HBV-associated delta agent from mothers to offspring in Northern Italy. J Med Virol. 1982;9:139–148.
Zignegno AL, Samuel D, Gentillini P, et al. Hepatitis D virus (HDV) RNA in patients with acute delta hepatitis and in liver graft recipients. J Hepatol. 1989; 9 (S–2): 98.
Non-A, non-B? (editorial). Lancet. 1975;2:64– 65.
Alter HJ. New kit on the block: Evaluation of second-generation assays for detection of antibody to the hepatitis C virus. Hepatology. 1992; 15: 350–353.
Esteban JI, Esteban R, Viladomiu L, et al. Hepatitis C virus antibodies among high risk groups in Spain. Lancet. 1989; 2: 294–297.
Stevens CE, Taylor PE, Pindyck J, et al. Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus: A preliminary study in volunteer blood donors. JAMA. 1990; 263: 49–53.
Van Doornum GJJ, Hooykas C, Cuypers MT, et al. Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infections among heterosexuals with multiple partners. J Med Virol 1991; 35: 22–27.
Fairley CK, Leslie DE, Nicholson S, et al. Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in Victoria. Med J Aust. 1990; 153: 274–276.
Yenen OS, Badur S. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in blood donors and risk groups in Istanbul, Turkey. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1991; 23: 19–24.
Sanchez-Quijano A, Rey C, Aguado I, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in sexually promiscuous groups. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1990; 9: 610–612.
Widell A, Hansson BG, Berntorp E, et al. Antibody to a hepatitis C virus related protein among patients at high risk for hepatitis B. Scand J Infect Dis. 1991; 10: 19–24.
Brettler DB, Alter HJ, Dienstag JL, et al. Prevalence of hepatitis C virus antibody in a cohort of hemophilia patients. Blood. 1990; 76: 254–256.
Bell J, Batey RG, Farrell AC, et al. Hepatitis C virus in intravenous drug users. Med J Aust. 1990; 153: 274–276.
Van den Hoek JAR, van Haastrecht HJA, Goudsmit J, et al. Prevalence, incidence, and risk factors of hepatitis C virus infection among drug users in Amsterdam. J Infect Dis. 1990; 162: 823–826.
Alter MJ, Sampliner RE. Hepatitis C: And miles to go before we sleep. N. Engl. J. Med. 1989; 321: 1538–1540.
Esteban JI, Gonzalez A, Hernandez JM, et al. Evaluation of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in a study of transfusion-associated hepatitis. N Engl J Med. 1990; 323: 1107–1112.
Japanese Red Cross Non-A, Non-B Hepatitis Research Group. Effect of screening for hepatitis C virus antibody and hepatitis B virus core antibody on incidence of post-transfusion hepatitis. Lancet. 1991; 338: 1040–1041.
Donahue JG, Munoz A, Ness PM, et al. The declining risk of post-transfusion hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1992; 327: 369–373.
Sugitani M, Inchauspe H, Shindo M, et al. Sensitivity of serologic assays to identify blood donors with hepatitis C viremia. Lancet. 1992; 339: 1018–1019.
Donahue JG, Nelson KE, Munoz A, et al. Transmission of HIV by transfusion of screened blood. N Engl J Med. 1990; 323: 1709.
Busch MP, Eble BE, Khayam-BashiH, et al. Evaluation of screened blood donations for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection by culture and DNA amplification of pooled cells. N Engl. J. Med. 1991;235:1–5.
Nelson KE, Donahue JG, Munoz A, et al. Transmission of retroviruses from seronegative donors by transfusion during cardiac surgery. A multicenter study of HIV-I and HTLV-I/II infections. Ann Int Med. 1992; 117: 554–559.
Alter MJ, Coleman PJ, Alexander WJ, et al. Importance of heterosexual activity in the transmission of hepatitis B and non-A, non-B hepatitis. JAMA. 1989; 262: 1201–1205.
Lin HH, Hsu HY, Chang MH, et al. Low prevalence of hepatitis C virus and infrequent perinatal or spouse infections in pregnant women in Taiwan. J Med Virol. 1991; 35: 237–240.
Tor J, Llibre JM, Carbonell M, et al. Sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus and its relation with hepatitis B virus and HIV. BMJ. 1990; 301: 1130–1133.
Eyster ME, Alter HJ, Aledort LM, et al. Heterosexual co-transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:764–768.
Brown J, Dourakis S, Karayiannis P, et al. Seroprevalence of hepatitis C virus nueleocapsid antibodies in patients with crypto-genic chronic liver disease. Hepatology. 1992; 15: 175–179.
Okamoto H, Tsuda F, Machida a, et al. Antibodies against synthetic oligopeptided deduced from the putative core gene for the diagnosis of hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology. 1992; 15: 180–186.
Liddle C, Crewe EB, Swanson NR, et al. Does hepatitis C virus play a role in “non-viral” chronic liver disease? Med J Aust. 1990; 153: 265–271.
Jeffers LJ, Hasan F, deMedina M, et al. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus among patients with cryptogenic chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis. Hepatology. 1992; 15: 187–190.
Kiyosawa K, Sodeyama T, Tanaka, et al. Inter-relationship of blood transfusion, non- A, non-B hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma: Analysis by detection of antibody to hepatitis C virus. Hepatology. 1990; 12: 671–675.
Sbolli G, Zanetti AR, Tanzi E, et al. Serum antibodies to hepatitis C virus in Italian patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. J Med Virol. 1990; 30: 230–232.
Kew MC, Houghton M, Choo QL, et al. Hepatitis C virus in southern African blacks with hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet. 1990; 335: 873–874.
Bruix J, Barrera JM, Calvet X, et al. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in Spanish patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatic cirrhosis. Lancet. 1989; 2: 1004–1006.
Martin P. Hepatitis C. More than just a liver disease. Gastroenterology. 1993; 104: 320–323.
Jori GP, Buonanno G, D’Orofrio F, et al. Incidence and immunochemical features of serum cryoglobulin in chronic liver disease. Gut. 1977; 18: 245–249.
Popp JW, Dienstag JL, Wands JR, et al. Essential mixed cryoglobulinemia without evidence for hepatitis B virus infections. Ann Intern Med. 1980; 92: 379–383.
Ferri C, Greco F, Longombardo G, et al. Antibodies to hepatitis C in patients with mixed cryoglobulinemia. Arthritis Rheum. 1991; 34: 1606–1610.
Ferri C, Greco F, Longombardo G, et al. Association between hepatitis C virus and mixed cryoglobulinemia. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1991; 9: 621–624.
Marcellin P, Descamps V, Martinot-Peignoux M, et al. Cryoglobulinemia with vasculitis associated with hepatitis C infection. Gastroenterology. 1992; 103: 272–277.
Coll O, Torne A, Martinez JM, et al. HCV vertical transmission. Preliminary data of a prospective study. Abstract #32, Infectious Diseases Society for Obstetrics and Gynecology Annual Meeting; August, 1991.
Reinus JF, Leikin EL, Alter HJ, et al. Failure to detect vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. Ann Intern Med. 1992; 117: 881–886.
Bohman VR, Stettier W, Little BB, et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors for hepatitis C virus antibody in pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol 1992; 80: 609–613.
Silverman NS, Jenkin BK, Wu C, et al. Hepatitis C virus in pregnancy: Seroprevalence and risk factors for infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993; 169: 583–587.
Wejstal R, Norkrans G. Chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis in pregnancy: Outcome and possible transmission to the offspring. Scand J Infect Dis. 1989; 21: 485–490.
Wejstal R, Hermodsson S, Iwarson S, et al. Mother to infant transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. J Med Virol. 1990; 30: 178–180.
Wejstal R, Widell A, Mansson AS, et al. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. Ann Intern Med. 1992; 117: 887–890.
Giovannini M, Tagger A, Ribero ML, et al. Maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus and HIV infections: a possible interaction. Lancet 1990; 335: 1216–1217.
Thaler MM, Park CK, Landers DV, et al. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lancet 1991; 338: 17–18.
Novati R, Thiers V, Monforte AD, et al. Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus detected by nested polymerase chain reaction. J Infect Dis. 1992; 165: 720–723.
Hsu HH, Wright TL, Luba D, et al. Failure to detect hepatitis C virus genome in human secretions with the polymerase chain reaction. Hepatology. 1991; 14: 763–767.
Wang JT, Want TH, Sheu JC, et al. Hepatitis C virus RNA in saliva of patients with post-transfusion hepatitis and low effieciency of transmission among spouses. J Med Virol. 1992; 36: 28–31.
Kuroki T, Nishiguchi S, Fukuda K, et al. Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Infect Dis. 1991; 164: 427–428.
Brillanti S, Masci C, Ricci P, et al. Significance of IgM antibody to hepatitis C virus in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology. 1992; 15: 998–1001.
Choo QL, Kuo g, Weiner AJ, et al. Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-borne non-A, non-B hepatitis genome. Science. 1989; 244: 359–362.
Kuo G, Choo QL, Alter HJ, et al. An assay for circulating antibodies to a major etiologic virus of human non-A, non-B hepatitis. Science. 1989; 244: 362–364.
Chaudhary RK, MacLean C. Evaluation of first-and second-generation RIBA kits for detection of antibody to hepatitis C virus. J Clin Microbiol. 1991; 29: 2329–2330.
McHutchinson JG, Person JL, Govindarajan S, et al. Improved detection of hepatitis C virus antibodies in high-risk populations. Hepatology. 1992; 15: 19–25.
Vallari DS, Jett BW, Alter HJ, et al. Serological markers of posttransfusion hepatitis C viral infection. J Clin Microbiol. 1992; 30: 552–556.
Alter HJ, Jett BW, Polito AJ, et al. Analysis of the role of HCV in transfusion-associated hepatitis. In: Hollinger FB, Lemon SM, Gust I, eds. Viral hepatitis and liver disease. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1991: 396–402.
Wang JT, Wang TH, Lin JT, et al. Improved serodiagnopsis of posttransfusion hepatitis C virus infection by a second-generation immunoassay based on multiple recombinant antigens. Vox Sang. 1992; 62: 21–24.
Inchauspe G, Abe K, Zebedee S, et al. Use of conserved sequences from hepatitis C virus for the detection of viral RNA in infected sera by polymerase chain reaction. Hepatology. 1991; 14: 595–600.
Wang JT, Wang TH, Sheu JC, et al. Effects of anticoagulants and storage of blood samples on efficacy of the polymerase chain reaction assay for hepatitis C virus. J Clin Microbiol. 1992; 30: 750–753.
Cha TA, Beall E, Irvine B, et al. At least five related, but distinct, hepatitis C viral genotypes exist. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1992; 89: 7144–7148.
Bukh J, Purcell RH, Miller RH. Sequence analysis of the 5’ noncoding region of hepatitis C virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1992; 89: 4942–4946.
Lee CH, Cheng C, Wang J, et al. Identification of hepatitis C viruses with a noncom-served sequence of the 5’ untranslated region. J Clin Microbiol. 1992; 30: 1602–1604.
Sanchez-Quijano A, Pineda JA, Lissen E, et al. Prevention of post-transfusion non-A, non-B hepatitis by nonspecific immunoglobulin in heart surgery patients. Lancet. 1988; 1: 1245–1249.
Snydman DR. Hepatitis in pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 1985; 313: 1398–1401.
Seeff LB, Hoofnagle JH. Immunoprophylaxis of viral hepatitis. Gastroenterology. 1979; 77: 161–182.
Davis GL, Baiart LA, Schiff ER, et al. Treatment of chronic hepatitis C with recombinant interferon alfa: A multicenter randomized, controlled trial. N Engl J Med. 1989; 321: 1501–1506.
DiBisceglie AM, Martin P, Kassianides c, et al. Recombinant interferon alfa therapy for chronic hepatitis C: A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med. 1989; 321: 1506–1510.
Balayan MS, Anjaparidze AG, Savinskaya SS, et al. Evidence for a virus in non-A, non-B hepatitis transmitted via the fecaloral route. Intervirology. 1983; 20: 23–31.
Bradley DW, Krawczynski K, Cook EH, Jr., et al. Enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis: Serial passage of disease in cynomolgus macaques and tamarins and recovery of disease–associated 27-to 34-nm viruslike particles. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1987; 84: 6277.
Reyes GR, Purdy MA, Kim JP, et al. Isolation of a cDNA from the virus responsible for enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis. Science. 1990; 247: 1335–1339.
Favorov MO, Fields HA, Purdy MA, et al. Serologic identification of hepatitis E virus infections in epidemic and endemic settings. J Med Virol. 1992; 36: 246–250.
Bradley DW. Hepatitis E: epidemiology, aetiology, and molecular biology. Rev Med Virol. 1992; 2: 19–28.
Smego RA, Khaliq AA. Epidemic non-A, non-B hepatitis in urban Karachi, Pakistan. Am J Trop Hyg. 1988; 38: 628–632.
DeCock KM, Bradley DW, Sandford NL, et al. Epidemic non-A, non-B hepatitis in patients from Pakistan. Ann Int Med. 1987: 106: 227–230.
Myint H, Soe MM, Khin T, et al. A clinical and epidemiological study of an epidemic of non-A, non-B hepatitis in Rangoon. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1985; 34: 1183–1189.
Gust ID, Purcell RH. Report of a workshop: Non-A, non-B hepatitis. J Infect Dis. 1987; 156: 630–635.
Bader T, Krawczynski K, Polish L, et al. Hepatitis E in a U.S. traveler to Mexico. N Engl J Med. 1991; 325: 1659.
Velazquez O, Stetler HC, Avila C, et al. Epidemic transmission of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis in Mexico, 1986–1987. JAMA. 1990; 263: 3281–3285.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis E among U.S. travelers, 1989–1992. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1993; 42: 1–4.
Tsega E, Hansson BG, Krawczynski K, et al. Acute sporadic viral hepatitis in Ethiopia: Causes, risk factors, and effects on pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis. 1992; 14: 961–965.
Viswanathan R . Epidemiology. Indian J Med Res. 1987;l(Suppl l):l–29.
Khuroo MS, Saleem M, Teli MR, et al. Failure to detect chronic liver disease after epidemic non-A, non-B hepatitis. Lancet. 1980; 2: 97–98.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1994 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Silverman, N.S. (1994). Hepatitis Viruses. In: Gonik, B. (eds) Viral Diseases in Pregnancy. Clinical Perspectives in Obstetrics and Gynecology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-2640-6_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-2640-6_9
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-7620-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-2640-6
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive