Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Modern Management of Cancer of the Rectum pp 323–347Cite as

Less Common Rectal Tumors

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

  • 1447 Accesses

Abstract

While the majority of malignant rectal neoplasms are adenocarcinomas, and the majority of anal malignancies are squamous cell carcinomas, other less frequent histologic subtypes are encountered in the rectum and anus. They include carcinoid tumors, rectal lymphoma, anorectal melanoma, neuroendocrine carcinoma (NEC) of the rectum, vascular lesions, squamous cell carcinoma of the rectum and its variants, rectal sarcomatous lesions, including gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) of the rectum, leiomyosarcoma and Kaposi’s sarcoma. These less common histiotypes will undoubtedly be encountered in clinical practice and deserve mention. Due to their rarity, these tumors frequently pose a challenge with diagnosis, staging, pathology, management, and follow-up. In this chapter we will discuss tumor biology, natural history and treatment options for these rare tumors and offer a data-driven, evidence-based approach to guide their management.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   179.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Oberdorfer S. Karzinoide: Tumoren des Dünndarms. Frank Z Path. 1907;1:426–9.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Delcore R, Friesen SR. Gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors. J Am Coll Surg. 1994;178(2):187–211.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Modlin IM, Lye KD, Kidd M. A 5-decade analysis of 13,715 carcinoid tumors. Cancer. 2003;97(4):934–59.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Modlin IM, Kidd M, Latich I, Zikusoka MN, Shapiro MD. Current status of gastrointestinal carcinoids. Gastroenterology. 2005;128(6):1717–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Soga J. Carcinoids of the rectum: an evaluation of 1271 reported cases. Surg Today. 1997;27(2):112–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Scherubl H. Rectal carcinoids are on the rise: early detection by screening endoscopy. Endoscopy. 2009;41(2):162–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Avenel P, McKendrick A, Silapaswan S, et al. Gastrointestinal carcinoids: an increasing incidence of rectal distribution. Am Surg. 2010;76(7):759–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Sauven P, Ridge JA, Quan SH, Sigurdson ER. Anorectal carcinoid tumors. Is aggressive surgery warranted? Ann Surg. 1990;211(1):67–71.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Teleky B, Herbst F, Langle F, Neuhold N, Niederle B. The prognosis of rectal carcinoid tumours. Int J Colorectal Dis. 1992;7(1):11–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Burke M, Shepherd N, Mann CV. Carcinoid tumours of the rectum and anus. Br J Surg. 1987;74(5):358–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Federspiel BH, Burke AP, Sobin LH, Shekitka KM. Rectal and colonic carcinoids. A clinicopathologic study of 84 cases. Cancer. 1990;65(1):135–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Koura AN, Giacco GG, Curley SA, Skibber JM, Feig BW, Ellis LM. Carcinoid tumors of the rectum: effect of size, histopathology, and surgical treatment on metastasis free survival. Cancer. 1997;79(7):1294–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Shields CJ, Tiret E, Winter DC, International Rectal Carcinoid Study G. Carcinoid tumors of the rectum: a multi-institutional international collaboration. Ann Surg. 2010;252(5):750–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Bosman FT, World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. WHO classification of tumours of the digestive system. 4th ed. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Edge SB, Compton CC. The American Joint Committee on Cancer: the 7th edition of the AJCC cancer staging manual and the future of TNM. Ann Surg Oncol. 2010;17(6):1471–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Anthony LB, Strosberg JR, Klimstra DS, et al. The NANETS consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and management of gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors (nets): well-differentiated nets of the distal colon and rectum. Pancreas. 2010;39(6):767–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Jetmore AB, Ray JE, Gathright Jr JB, McMullen KM, Hicks TC, Timmcke AE. Rectal carcinoids: the most frequent carcinoid tumor. Dis Colon Rectum. 1992;35(8):717–25.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Merg A, Wirtzfeld D, Wang J, Cheney R, Dunn KB, Rajput A. Viability of endoscopic and excisional treatment of early rectal carcinoids. J Gastrointest Surg. 2007;11(7):893–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Kobayashi K, Katsumata T, Yoshizawa S, et al. Indications of endoscopic polypectomy for rectal carcinoid tumors and clinical usefulness of endoscopic ultrasonography. Dis Colon Rectum. 2005;48(2):285–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Shim KN, Yang SK, Myung SJ, et al. Atypical endoscopic features of rectal carcinoids. Endoscopy. 2004;36(4):313–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Wang AY, Ahmad NA. Rectal carcinoids. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2006;22(5):529–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Peskin GW, Orloff MJ. A clinical study of 25 patients with carcinoid tumors of the rectum. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1959;109:673–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Habal N, Sims C, Bilchik AJ. Gastrointestinal carcinoid tumors and second primary malignancies. J Surg Oncol. 2000;75(4):310–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Cuffy M, Abir F, Longo WE. Management of less common tumors of the colon, rectum, and anus. Clin Colorectal Cancer. 2006;5(5):327–37.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Fujishima H, Misawa T, Maruoka A, Yoshinaga M, Chijiiwa Y, Nawata H. Rectal carcinoid tumor: endoscopic ultrasonographic detection and endoscopic removal. Eur J Radiol. 1993;16(3):198–200.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Soga J, Tazawa K. Pathologic analysis of carcinoids. Histologic reevaluation of 62 cases. Cancer. 1971;28(4):990–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Kantawala KP, Sonavane SK, Menias CO, Pai RK. Atypical tumors of the rectum with pathologic correlation. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol. 2011;40(5):198–207.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Tapia FJ, Polak JM, Barbosa AJ, et al. Neuron-specific enolase is produced by neuroendocrine tumours. Lancet. 1981;1(8224):808–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Yang K, Ulich T, Cheng L, Lewin KJ. The neuroendocrine products of intestinal carcinoids. An immunoperoxidase study of 35 carcinoid tumors stained for serotonin and eight polypeptide hormones. Cancer. 1983;51(10):1918–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Eggenberger JC. Carcinoid and other neuroendocrine tumors of the colon and rectum. Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 2011;24(3):129–34.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Kim MS, Hur H, Min BS, Baik SH, Lee KY, Kim NK. Clinical outcomes for rectal carcinoid tumors according to a new (AJCC 7th edition) TNM staging system: a single institutional analysis of 122 patients. J Surg Oncol. 2013;107(8):835–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Kasuga A, Chino A, Uragami N, et al. Treatment strategy for rectal carcinoids: a clinicopathological analysis of 229 cases at a single cancer institution. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;27(12):1801–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Yoon SN, Yu CS, Shin US, Kim CW, Lim SB, Kim JC. Clinicopathological characteristics of rectal carcinoids. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2010;25(9):1087–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Li AF, Hsu CY, Li A, et al. A 35-year retrospective study of carcinoid tumors in Taiwan: differences in distribution with a high probability of associated second primary malignancies. Cancer. 2008;112(2):274–83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Wang M, Peng J, Yang W, Chen W, Mo S, Cai S. Prognostic analysis for carcinoid tumours of the rectum: a single institutional analysis of 106 patients. Colorectal Dis. 2011;13(2):150–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. McDermott FD, Heeney A, Courtney D, Mohan H, Winter D. Rectal carcinoids: a systematic review. Surg Endosc. 2014;28(7):2020–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Schindl M, Niederle B, Hafner M, et al. Stage-dependent therapy of rectal carcinoid tumors. World J Surg. 1998;22(6):628–33; discussion 634.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Herrmann R, Panahon AM, Barcos MP, Walsh D, Stutzman L. Gastrointestinal involvement in non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Cancer. 1980;46(1):215–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Ghimire P, Wu GY, Zhu L. Primary gastrointestinal lymphoma. World J Gastroenterol. 2011;17(6):697–707.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Dionigi G, Annoni M, Rovera F, et al. Primary colorectal lymphomas: review of the literature. Surg Oncol. 2007;16 Suppl 1:S169–71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Guermazi A, Brice P, de Kerviler EE, et al. Extranodal Hodgkin disease: spectrum of disease. Radiographics. 2001;21(1):161–79.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Wong MT, Eu KW. Primary colorectal lymphomas. Colorectal Dis. 2006;8(7):586–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Shepherd NA, Hall PA, Coates PJ, Levison DA. Primary malignant lymphoma of the colon and rectum. A histopathological and immunohistochemical analysis of 45 cases with clinicopathological correlations. Histopathology. 1988;12(3):235–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Blinder VS, Chadburn A, Furman RR, Mathew S, Leonard JP. Improving outcomes for patients with Burkitt lymphoma and HIV. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2008;22(3):175–87.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Valbuena JR, Gualco G, Espejo-Plascencia I, Medeiros LJ. Classical Hodgkin lymphoma arising in the rectum. Ann Diagn Pathol. 2005;9(1):38–42.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Sapp M, Perez-Ordonez B, Brenneman F, Imrie K, Morava-Protzner I, Lim MS. EBV-associated perianal Hodgkin’s disease in an HIV-positive individual. Am J Hematol. 2001;66(1):42–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Ambrosio MR, Rocca BJ, Barone A, et al. Primary anorectal Hodgkin lymphoma: report of a case and review of the literature. Hum Pathol. 2014;45(3):648–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Dawson IM, Cornes JS, Morson BC. Primary malignant lymphoid tumours of the intestinal tract. Report of 37 cases with a study of factors influencing prognosis. Br J Surg. 1961;49:80–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Musshoff K. Clinical staging classification of non-hodgkins lymphomas. Strahlenther Onkol. 1977;153(4):218–21.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. A predictive model for aggressive non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. The International Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma Prognostic Factors Project. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(14):987–94.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Ruskone-Fourmestraux A, Dragosics B, Morgner A, Wotherspoon A, De Jong D. Paris staging system for primary gastrointestinal lymphomas. Gut. 2003;52(6):912–3.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, Thiele J, Vzrdiman JW. WHO classification of tumours of haematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. 4th ed. Lyon: IARC; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Koniaris LG, Drugas G, Katzman PJ, Salloum R. Management of gastrointestinal lymphoma. J Am Coll Surg. 2003;197(1):127–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Dickson BC, Serra S, Chetty R. Primary gastrointestinal tract lymphoma: diagnosis and management of common neoplasms. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2006;6(11):1609–28.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Gurbuxani S, Anastasi J. What to do when you suspect gastrointestinal lymphoma: a pathologist’s perspective. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;5(4):417–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Devine RM, Beart Jr RW, Wolff BG. Malignant lymphoma of the rectum. Dis Colon Rectum. 1986;29(12):821–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Aozasa K, Ohsawa M, Soma T, et al. Malignant lymphoma of the rectum. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 1990;20(4):380–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Li B, Shi YK, He XH, et al. Primary non-Hodgkin lymphomas in the small and large intestine: clinicopathological characteristics and management of 40 patients. Int J Hematol. 2008;87(4):375–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Tevlin R, Larkin JO, Hyland JM, O’Connell PR, Winter DC. Primary colorectal lymphoma – a single centre experience. Surgeon. 2014. Mar 30. pii: S1479–666X(14)00007-9. doi: 10.1016/j.surge.2014.01.002. [Epub ahead of print]

  60. Gonzalez QH, Heslin MJ, Davila-Cervantes A, et al. Primary colonic lymphoma. Am Surg. 2008;74(3):214–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Myung SJ, Joo KR, Yang SK, et al. Clinicopathologic features of ileocolonic malignant lymphoma: analysis according to colonoscopic classification. Gastrointest Endosc. 2003;57(3):343–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Gollub MJ. Imaging of gastrointestinal lymphoma. Radiol Clin North Am. 2008;46(2):287–312, ix.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Keane PF, Scott R, Wood CB, Stewart I. Primary rectal lymphoma. Br J Clin Pract. 1990;44(11):511–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Teare JP, Greenfield SM, Slater S. Rectal lymphoma after colectomy for ulcerative colitis. Gut. 1992;33(1):138–9.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Drolet S, Maclean AR, Stewart DA, Dixon E, Paolucci EO, Buie WD. Primary colorectal lymphoma-clinical outcomes in a population-based series. J Gastrointest Surg. 2011;15(10):1851–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Sibly TF, Keane RM, Lever JV, Southwood WF. Rectal lymphoma in radiation injured bowel. Br J Surg. 1985;72(11):879–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Parente F, Rizzardini G, Cernuschi M, Antinori S, Fasan M, Bianchi Porro G. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and AIDS: frequency of gastrointestinal involvement in a large Italian series. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1993;28(4):315–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Ioachim HL, Antonescu C, Giancotti F, Dorsett B, Weinstein MA. EBV-associated anorectal lymphomas in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am J Surg Pathol. 1997;21(9):997–1006.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Fan CW, Chen JS, Wang JY, Fan HA. Perforated rectal lymphoma in a renal transplant recipient: report of a case. Dis Colon Rectum. 1997;40(10):1258–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Burkes RL, Meyer PR, Gill PS, Parker JW, Rasheed S, Levine AM. Rectal lymphoma in homosexual men. Arch Intern Med. 1986;146(5):913–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Gottlieb CA, Meiri E, Maeda KM. Rectal non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma: a clinicopathologic study and review. Henry Ford Hosp Med J. 1990;38(4):255–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Lee MH, Waxman M, Gillooley JF. Primary malignant lymphoma of the anorectum in homosexual men. Dis Colon Rectum. 1986;29(6):413–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Fan CW, Changchien CR, Wang JY, et al. Primary colorectal lymphoma. Dis Colon Rectum. 2000;43(9):1277–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Zighelboim J, Larson MV. Primary colonic lymphoma. Clinical presentation, histopathologic features, and outcome with combination chemotherapy. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1994;18(4):291–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Aviles A, Neri N, Huerta-Guzman J. Large bowel lymphoma: an analysis of prognostic factors and therapy in 53 patients. J Surg Oncol. 2002;80(2):111–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Bilsel Y, Balik E, Yamaner S, Bugra D. Clinical and therapeutic considerations of rectal lymphoma: a case report and literature review. World J Gastroenterol. 2005;11(3):460–1.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Fisher RI, Gaynor ER, Dahlberg S, et al. Comparison of a standard regimen (CHOP) with three intensive chemotherapy regimens for advanced non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. N Engl J Med. 1993;328(14):1002–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Pettengell R, Linch D, Haemato-Oncology Task Force of the British Committee for Standards in H. Position paper on the therapeutic use of rituximab in CD20-positive diffuse large B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Br J Haematol. 2003;121(1):44–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Freeman C, Berg JW, Cutler SJ. Occurrence and prognosis of extranodal lymphomas. Cancer. 1972;29(1):252–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Okamura T, Suga T, Iwaya Y, et al. Helicobacter pylori-negative primary rectal MALT lymphoma: complete remission after radiotherapy. Case Rep Gastroenterol. 2012;6(2):319–27.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Loehr WJ, Mujahed Z, Zahn FD, Gray GF, Thorbjarnarson B. Primary lymphoma of the gastrointestinal tract: a review of 100 cases. Ann Surg. 1969;170(2):232–8.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Kim YH, Lee JH, Yang SK, et al. Primary colon lymphoma in Korea: a KASID (Korean Association for the Study of Intestinal Diseases) Study. Dig Dis Sci. 2005;50(12):2243–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Cai S, Cannizzo Jr F, Bullard Dunn KM, Gibbs JF, Czuczman M, Rajput A. The role of surgical intervention in non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma of the colon and rectum. Am J Surg. 2007;193(3):409–12; discussion 412.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Ernst M, Stein H, Ludwig D, Boese-Landgraf J, Ritz J, Haring R. Surgical therapy of gastrointestinal non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas. Eur J Surg Oncol. 1996;22(2):177–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Werdin C, Limas C, Knodell RG. Primary malignant melanoma of the rectum. Evidence for origination from rectal mucosal melanocytes. Cancer. 1988;61(7):1364–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Nicholson AG, Cox PM, Marks CG, Cook MG. Primary malignant melanoma of the rectum. Histopathology. 1993;22(3):261–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Bullard KM, Tuttle TM, Rothenberger DA, et al. Surgical therapy for anorectal melanoma. J Am Coll Surg. 2003;196(2):206–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Meguerditchian AN, Meterissian SH, Dunn KB. Anorectal melanoma: diagnosis and treatment. Dis Colon Rectum. 2011;54(5):638–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Yap LB, Neary P. A comparison of wide local excision with abdominoperineal resection in anorectal melanoma. Melanoma Res. 2004;14(2):147–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Chang AE, Karnell LH, Menck HR. The National Cancer Data Base report on cutaneous and noncutaneous melanoma: a summary of 84,836 cases from the past decade. The American College of Surgeons Commission on Cancer and the American Cancer Society. Cancer. 1998;83(8):1664–78.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Moozar KL, Wong CS, Couture J. Anorectal malignant melanoma: treatment with surgery or radiation therapy, or both. Can J Surg. 2003;46(5):345–9.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Cagir B, Whiteford MH, Topham A, Rakinic J, Fry RD. Changing epidemiology of anorectal melanoma. Dis Colon Rectum. 1999;42(9):1203–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Row D, Weiser MR. Anorectal melanoma. Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 2009;22(2):120–6.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Slingluff Jr CL, Vollmer RT, Seigler HF. Anorectal melanoma: clinical characteristics and results of surgical management in twenty-four patients. Surgery. 1990;107(1):1–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Brady MS, Kavolius JP, Quan SH. Anorectal melanoma. A 64-year experience at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. Dis Colon Rectum. 1995;38(2):146–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Thibault C, Sagar P, Nivatvongs S, Ilstrup DM, Wolff BG. Anorectal melanoma–an incurable disease? Dis Colon Rectum. 1997;40(6):661–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Pessaux P, Pocard M, Elias D, et al. Surgical management of primary anorectal melanoma. Br J Surg. 2004;91(9):1183–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Bello DM, Smyth E, Perez D, et al. Anal versus rectal melanoma: does site of origin predict outcome? Dis Colon Rectum. 2013;56(2):150–7.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Longo WE, Vernava 3rd AM, Wade TP, Coplin MA, Virgo KS, Johnson FE. Rare anal canal cancers in the U.S. veteran: patterns of disease and results of treatment. Am Surg. 1995;61(6):495–500.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Yeh JJ, Shia J, Hwu WJ, et al. The role of abdominoperineal resection as surgical therapy for anorectal melanoma. Ann Surg. 2006;244(6):1012–7.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Kiran RP, Rottoli M, Pokala N, Fazio VW. Long-term outcomes after local excision and radical surgery for anal melanoma: data from a population database. Dis Colon Rectum. 2010;53(4):402–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Yeh JJ, Weiser MR, Shia J, Hwu WJ. Response of stage IV anal mucosal melanoma to chemotherapy. Lancet Oncol. 2005;6(6):438–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Perez DR, Trakarnsanga A, Shia J, et al. Locoregional lymphadenectomy in the surgical management of anorectal melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2013;20(7):2339–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Hodi FS, O’Day SJ, McDermott DF, et al. Improved survival with ipilimumab in patients with metastatic melanoma. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(8):711–23.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Ku GY, Yuan J, Page DB, et al. Single-institution experience with ipilimumab in advanced melanoma patients in the compassionate use setting: lymphocyte count after 2 doses correlates with survival. Cancer. 2010;116(7):1767–75.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Chapman PB, Hauschild A, Robert C, et al. Improved survival with vemurafenib in melanoma with BRAF V600E mutation. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(26):2507–16.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Carvajal RD, Antonescu CR, Wolchok JD, et al. KIT as a therapeutic target in metastatic melanoma. JAMA. 2011;305(22):2327–34.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Omholt K, Grafstrom E, Kanter-Lewensohn L, Hansson J, Ragnarsson-Olding BK. KIT pathway alterations in mucosal melanomas of the vulva and other sites. Clin Cancer Res. 2011;17(12):3933–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Ni S, Huang D, Chen X, et al. c-kit gene mutation and CD117 expression in human anorectal melanomas. Hum Pathol. 2012;43(6):801–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Saclarides TJ, Szeluga D, Staren ED. Neuroendocrine cancers of the colon and rectum. Results of a ten-year experience. Dis Colon Rectum. 1994;37(7):635–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Yao JC, Phan AT, Chang DZ, et al. Efficacy of RAD001 (everolimus) and octreotide LAR in advanced low- to intermediate-grade neuroendocrine tumors: results of a phase II study. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(26):4311–8.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Aytac E, Ozdemir Y, Ozuner G. Long term outcomes of neuroendocrine carcinomas (high-grade neuroendocrine tumors) of the colon, rectum, and anal canal. J Visc Surg. 2014;151(1):3–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Cebrian J, Larach SW, Ferrara A, et al. Small-cell carcinoma of the rectum: report of two cases. Dis Colon Rectum. 1999;42(2):274–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Brenner B, Shah MA, Gonen M, Klimstra DS, Shia J, Kelsen DP. Small-cell carcinoma of the gastrointestinal tract: a retrospective study of 64 cases. Br J Cancer. 2004;90(9):1720–6.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Bernick PE, Klimstra DS, Shia J, et al. Neuroendocrine carcinomas of the colon and rectum. Dis Colon Rectum. 2004;47(2):163–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Jansson D, Gould VE, Gooch GT, et al. Immunohistochemical analysis of colon carcinomas applying exocrine and neuroendocrine markers. APMIS. 1988;96(12):1129–39.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Klimstra DS, Modlin IR, Coppola D, Lloyd RV, Suster S. The pathologic classification of neuroendocrine tumors: a review of nomenclature, grading, and staging systems. Pancreas. 2010;39(6):707–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Rindi G, Kloppel G, Couvelard A, et al. TNM staging of midgut and hindgut (neuro) endocrine tumors: a consensus proposal including a grading system. Virchows Arch. 2007;451(4):757–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Rindi GAR, Bosman FT, Capella C, Klimstra DS, Klöppel G, et al. Nomenclature and classification of neuroendocrine neoplasms of the digestive system. In: Bosman FT, Carneiro F, Hruban RH, Theise ND, et al., editors. WHO classification of tumours of the digestive system. 4th ed. Lyon: IARC; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Caplin M, Sundin A, Nillson O, et al. ENETS consensus guidelines for the management of patients with digestive neuroendocrine neoplasms: colorectal neuroendocrine neoplasms. Neuroendocrinology. 2012;95(2):88–97.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Mandair D, Caplin ME. Colonic and rectal NET’s. Best practice & research. Clin Gastroenterol. 2012;26(6):775–89.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Landry CS, Brock G, Scoggins CR, McMasters KM, Martin 2nd RC. Proposed staging system for colon carcinoid tumors based on an analysis of 2,459 patients. J Am Coll Surg. 2008;207(6):874–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Landry CS, Brock G, Scoggins CR, McMasters KM, Martin 2nd RC. A proposed staging system for rectal carcinoid tumors based on an analysis of 4701 patients. Surgery. 2008;144(3):460–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Jann H, Roll S, Couvelard A, et al. Neuroendocrine tumors of midgut and hindgut origin: tumor-node-metastasis classification determines clinical outcome. Cancer. 2011;117(15):3332–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Vortmeyer AO, Lubensky IA, Merino MJ, et al. Concordance of genetic alterations in poorly differentiated colorectal neuroendocrine carcinomas and associated adenocarcinomas. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1997;89(19):1448–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Gaffey MJ, Mills SE, Lack EE. Neuroendocrine carcinoma of the colon and rectum. A clinicopathologic, ultrastructural, and immunohistochemical study of 24 cases. Am J Surg Pathol. 1990;14(11):1010–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Smith JD, Reidy DL, Goodman KA, Shia J, Nash GM. A retrospective review of 126 high-grade neuroendocrine carcinomas of the colon and rectum. Ann Surg Oncol. 2014;21(9):2956–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Fahy BN, Tang LH, Klimstra D, et al. Carcinoid of the rectum risk stratification (CaRRs): a strategy for preoperative outcome assessment. Ann Surg Oncol. 2007;14(5):1735–43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Mani S, Modlin IM, Ballantyne G, Ahlman H, West B. Carcinoids of the rectum. J Am Coll Surg. 1994;179(2):231–48.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Kumar AS, Sidani SM, Kolli K, et al. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery for rectal carcinoids: the largest reported United States experience. Colorectal Dis. 2012;14(5):562–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Smith J, Reidy-Lagunes D. The management of extrapulmonary poorly differentiated (high-grade) neuroendocrine carcinomas. Semin Oncol. 2013;40(1):100–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Mulliken JB, Glowacki J. Classification of pediatric vascular lesions. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1982;70(1):120–1.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Yoo S. GI-associated hemangiomas and vascular malformations. Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 2011;24(3):193–200.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Head HD, Baker JQ, Muir RW. Hemangioma of the colon. Am J Surg. 1973;126(5):691–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Aylward CA, Orangio GR, Lucas GW, Fazio VW. Diffuse cavernous hemangioma of the rectosigmoid–CT scan, a new diagnostic modality, and surgical management using sphincter-saving procedures. Report of three cases. Dis Colon Rectum. 1988;31(10):797–802.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Calem WS, Jimenez FA. Vascular malformations of the intestine. Their role as a source of hemorrhage. Arch Surg. 1963;86:571–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Wilson CL, Song LM, Chua H, et al. Bleeding from cavernous angiomatosis of the rectum in Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome: report of three cases and literature review. Am J Gastroenterol. 2001;96(9):2783–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Elsayes KM, Menias CO, Dillman JR, Platt JF, Willatt JM, Heiken JP. Vascular malformation and hemangiomatosis syndromes: spectrum of imaging manifestations. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2008;190(5):1291–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Jeffery PJ, Hawley PR, Parks AG. Colo-anal sleeve anastomosis in the treatment of diffuse cavernous haemangioma involving the rectum. Br J Surg. 1976;63(9):678–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Londono-Schimmer EE, Ritchie JK, Hawley PR. Coloanal sleeve anastomosis in the treatment of diffuse cavernous haemangioma of the rectum: long-term results. Br J Surg. 1994;81(8):1235–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Kishi K, Takahashi S, Sawata T, Furumoto T, Kawamura Y, Kato K. A cavernous hemangioma of the rectum treated as a hemorrhoid for 1 year prior to its diagnosis: report of a case. Surg Today. 1994;24(9):833–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Benson JM, Orlay G. Colorectal haemangioma and its relationship to haemorrhoids in childhood. Aust N Z J Surg. 1991;61(7):537–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Kiba T, Takemura M. Polypoid cavernous hemangioma removed under colonoscopy. Dig Endosc. 2003;15(4):338–40.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Dovey P. Pelvic phleboliths. Clin Radiol. 1966;17(2):121–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Bungay P, Mortensen M. Imaging diffuse cavernous haemangioma of the rectosigmoid. Colorectal Dis. 1999;1(4):192–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Wang CH. Sphincter-saving procedure for treatment of diffuse cavernous hemangioma of the rectum and sigmoid colon. Dis Colon Rectum. 1985;28(8):604–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Cunningham JA, Garcia VF, Quispe G. Diffuse cavernous rectal hemangioma–sphincter-sparing approach to therapy. Report of a case. Dis Colon Rectum. 1989;32(4):344–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Bell GA, McKenzie AD, Emmons H. Diffuse cavernous hemangioma of the rectum: report of a case and review of the literature. Dis Colon Rectum. 1972;15(5):377–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Takamatsu H, Akiyama H, Noguchi H, Tahara H, Kajiya H. Endorectal pull-through operation for diffuse cavernous hemangiomatosis of the sigmoid colon, rectum and anus. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 1992;2(4):245–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Lv Z, Xiao X, Zheng J, Liu J, Chen G. Modified Soave procedure for the treatment of vascular malformations involving anorectum and sigmoid colon. J Pediatr Surg. 2009;44(12):2359–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Hasegawa K, Lee WY, Noguchi T, Yaguchi T, Sasaki H, Nagasako K. Colonoscopic removal of hemangiomas. Dis Colon Rectum. 1981;24(2):85–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Corman ML, Haggitt RC. Lymphangioma of the rectum: report of a case. Dis Colon Rectum. 1973;16(6):524–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Sylla P, Deutsch G, Luo J, et al. Cavernous, arteriovenous, and mixed hemangioma-lymphangioma of the rectosigmoid: rare causes of rectal bleeding–case series and review of the literature. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2008;23(7):653–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Chisholm AJHP. Lymphangioma of the rectum. Am J Surg. 1932;17(2):281–2.

    Google Scholar 

  155. Kuramoto S, Sakai S, Tsuda K, et al. Lymphangioma of the large intestine. Report of a case. Dis Colon Rectum. 1988;31(11):900–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Stout AP, Murray MR. Hemangiopericytoma: a vascular tumor featuring zimmermann’s pericytes. Ann Surg. 1942;116(1):26–33.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Kay S, Warthen HJ. Hemangiopericytoma of the rectum. Cancer. 1953;6(1):167–9.

    Google Scholar 

  158. Genter B, Mir R, Strauss R, et al. Hemangiopericytoma of the colon: report of a case and review of literature. Dis Colon Rectum. 1982;25(2):149–56.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Stout AP. Hemangiopericytoma; a study of 25 cases. Cancer. 1949;2(6):1027–54, illust.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Cole Jr HN, Reagan JW, Lund HZ. Hemangiopericytoma. A M A Arch Dermatol. 1955;72(4):328–34.

    Google Scholar 

  161. Enzinger FM, Smith BH. Hemangiopericytoma. An analysis of 106 cases. Hum Pathol. 1976;7(1):61–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Marino Jr AW. Hemangiopericytoma: a review of the literature and amplification. Dis Colon Rectum. 1959;2:438–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. del Rosario ML, Saleh A. Preoperative chemotherapy for congenital hemangiopericytoma and a review of the literature. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1997;19(3):247–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Jha N, McNeese M, Barkley Jr HT, Kong J. Does radiotherapy have a role in hemangiopericytoma management? Report of 14 new cases and a review of the literature. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1987;13(9):1399–402.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Staples JJ, Robinson RA, Wen BC, Hussey DH. Hemangiopericytoma–the role of radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1990;19(2):445–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Frizelle FA, Hobday KS, Batts KP, Nelson H. Adenosquamous and squamous carcinoma of the colon and upper rectum: a clinical and histopathologic study. Dis Colon Rectum. 2001;44(3):341–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Michelassi F, Mishlove LA, Stipa F, Block GE. Squamous-cell carcinoma of the colon. Experience at the University of Chicago, review of the literature, report of two cases. Dis Colon Rectum. 1988;31(3):228–35.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Williams GT, Blackshaw AJ, Morson BC. Squamous carcinoma of the colorectum and its genesis. J Pathol. 1979;129(3):139–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Zirkin RM, McCord DL. Squamous cell carcinoma of the rectum: report of a case complicating chronic ulcerative colitis. Dis Colon Rectum. 1963;6:370–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Anagnostopoulos G, Sakorafas GH, Kostopoulos P, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma of the rectum: a case report and review of the literature. Eur J Cancer Care. 2005;14(1):70–4.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Audeau A, Han HW, Johnston MJ, Whitehead MW, Frizelle FA. Does human papilloma virus have a role in squamous cell carcinoma of the colon and upper rectum? Eur J Surg Oncol. 2002;28(6):657–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Nahas CS, Shia J, Joseph R, et al. Squamous-cell carcinoma of the rectum: a rare but curable tumor. Dis Colon Rectum. 2007;50(9):1393–400.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Lafreniere R, Ketcham AS. Primary squamous carcinoma of the rectum. Report of a case and review of the literature. Dis Colon Rectum. 1985;28(12):967–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Juturi JV, Francis B, Koontz PW, Wilkes JD. Squamous-cell carcinoma of the colon responsive to combination chemotherapy: report of two cases and review of the literature. Dis Colon Rectum. 1999;42(1):102–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Nigro ND, Vaitkevicius VK, Considine Jr B. Combined therapy for cancer of the anal canal: a preliminary report. Dis Colon Rectum. 1974;17(3):354–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Nigro ND. An evaluation of combined therapy for squamous cell cancer of the anal canal. Dis Colon Rectum. 1984;27(12):763–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Iannacone E, Dionisi F, Musio D, Caiazzo R, Raffetto N, Banelli E. Chemoradiation as definitive treatment for primary squamous cell cancer of the rectum. World J Radiol. 2010;2(8):329–33.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Rasheed S, Yap T, Zia A, McDonald PJ, Glynne-Jones R. Chemo-radiotherapy: an alternative to surgery for squamous cell carcinoma of the rectum–report of six patients and literature review. Colorectal Dis. 2009;11(2):191–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Ferreira AO, Loureiro AL, Marques V, Sousa HT. Primary squamous cell carcinoma of the most distal rectum: a dilemma in origin and management. BMJ Case Rep. 2014;1–4.

    Google Scholar 

  180. Comer TP, Beahrs OH, Dockerty MB. Primary squamous cell carcinoma and adenocanthoma of the colon. Cancer. 1971;28(5):1111–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Cagir B, Nagy MW, Topham A, Rakinic J, Fry RD. Adenosquamous carcinoma of the colon, rectum, and anus: epidemiology, distribution, and survival characteristics. Dis Colon Rectum. 1999;42(2):258–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Masoomi H, Ziogas A, Lin BS, et al. Population-based evaluation of adenosquamous carcinoma of the colon and rectum. Dis Colon Rectum. 2012;55(5):509–14.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Michelassi F, Montag AG, Block GE. Adenosquamous-cell carcinoma in ulcerative colitis. Report of a case. Dis Colon Rectum. 1988;31(4):323–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Cerezo L, Alvarez M, Edwards O, Price G. Adenosquamous carcinoma of the colon. Dis Colon Rectum. 1985;28(8):597–603.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Petrelli NJ, Valle AA, Weber TK, Rodriguez-Bigas M. Adenosquamous carcinoma of the colon and rectum. Dis Colon Rectum. 1996;39(11):1265–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Khalifa AA, Bong WL, Rao VK, Williams MJ. Leiomyosarcoma of the rectum. Report of a case and review of the literature. Dis Colon Rectum. 1986;29(6):427–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Yeh CY, Chen HH, Tang R, Tasi WS, Lin PY, Wang JY. Surgical outcome after curative resection of rectal leiomyosarcoma. Dis Colon Rectum. 2000;43(11):1517–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Thorlakson RH, Ross HM. Leiomyosarcoma of the rectum. Ann Surg. 1961;154:979–84.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Neuman Z. Leiomyosarcoma of the rectum, developing from benign leiomyoma. Ann Surg. 1952;135(3):426–30.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Miettinen M, Furlong M, Sarlomo-Rikala M, Burke A, Sobin LH, Lasota J. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors, intramural leiomyomas, and leiomyosarcomas in the rectum and anus: a clinicopathologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular genetic study of 144 cases. Am J Surg Pathol. 2001;25(9):1121–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Evans HL. Smooth muscle tumors of the gastrointestinal tract. A study of 56 cases followed for a minimum of 10 years. Cancer. 1985;56(9):2242–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Meijer S, Peretz T, Gaynor JJ, Tan C, Hajdu SI, Brennan MF. Primary colorectal sarcoma. A retrospective review and prognostic factor study of 50 consecutive patients. Arch Surg. 1990;125(9):1163–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Randleman Jr CD, Wolff BG, Dozois RR, Spencer RJ, Weiland LH, Ilstrup DM. Leiomyosarcoma of the rectum and anus. A series of 22 cases. Int J Colorectal Dis. 1989;4(2):91–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Walsh TH, Mann CV. Smooth muscle neoplasms of the rectum and anal canal. Br J Surg. 1984;71(8):597–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Sanders RJ. Leiomyosarcoma of the rectum: report of six cases. Ann Surg. 1961;154(6 Suppl):150–4.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Luna-Perez P, Rodriguez DF, Lujan L, et al. Colorectal sarcoma: analysis of failure patterns. J Surg Oncol. 1998;69(1):36–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Tryggvason G, Gislason HG, Magnusson MK, Jonasson JG. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors in Iceland, 1990–2003: the icelandic GIST study, a population-based incidence and pathologic risk stratification study. Int J Cancer. 2005;117(2):289–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Liu H, Yan Z, Liao G, Yin H. Treatment strategy of rectal gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST). J Surg Oncol. 2014;109(7):708–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Hirota S, Isozaki K, Moriyama Y, et al. Gain-of-function mutations of c-kit in human gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Science. 1998;279(5350):577–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Hassan I, You YN, Dozois EJ, et al. Clinical, pathologic, and immunohistochemical characteristics of gastrointestinal stromal tumors of the colon and rectum: implications for surgical management and adjuvant therapies. Dis Colon Rectum. 2006;49(5):609–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Katz SC, DeMatteo RP. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors and leiomyosarcomas. J Surg Oncol. 2008;97(4):350–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Duffy MJ, Lamerz R, Haglund C, et al. Tumor markers in colorectal cancer, gastric cancer and gastrointestinal stromal cancers: European group on tumor markers 2014 guidelines update. Int J Cancer. 2014;134(11):2513–22.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Changchien CR, Wu MC, Tasi WS, et al. Evaluation of prognosis for malignant rectal gastrointestinal stromal tumor by clinical parameters and immunohistochemical staining. Dis Colon Rectum. 2004;47(11):1922–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Jakob J, Mussi C, Ronellenfitsch U, et al. Gastrointestinal stromal tumor of the rectum: results of surgical and multimodality therapy in the era of imatinib. Ann Surg Oncol. 2013;20(2):586–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Farid M, Lee MJ, Chew MH, et al. Localized gastrointestinal stromal tumor of the rectum: an uncommon primary site with prominent disease and treatment-related morbidities. Mol Clin Oncol. 2013;1(1):190–4.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Dong C, Jun-Hui C, Xiao-Jun Y, et al. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors of the rectum: clinical, pathologic, immunohistochemical characteristics and prognostic analysis. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2007;42(10):1221–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Agaimy A, Vassos N, Markl B, et al. Anorectal gastrointestinal stromal tumors: a retrospective multicenter analysis of 15 cases emphasizing their high local recurrence rate and the need for standardized therapeutic approach. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2013;28(8):1057–64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Dematteo RP, Gold JS, Saran L, et al. Tumor mitotic rate, size, and location independently predict recurrence after resection of primary gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST). Cancer. 2008;112(3):608–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Demetri GD, Benjamin RS, Blanke CD, et al. NCCN Task Force report: management of patients with gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST)–update of the NCCN clinical practice guidelines. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2007;5 Suppl 2:S1–29; quiz S30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Dematteo RP, Ballman KV, Antonescu CR, et al. Adjuvant imatinib mesylate after resection of localised, primary gastrointestinal stromal tumour: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2009;373(9669):1097–104.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Fujimoto Y, Akiyoshi T, Konishi T, Nagayama S, Fukunaga Y, Ueno M. Laparoscopic sphincter-preserving surgery (intersphincteric resection) after neoadjuvant imatinib treatment for gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) of the rectum. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2014;29(1):111–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Fiore M, Palassini E, Fumagalli E, et al. Preoperative imatinib mesylate for unresectable or locally advanced primary gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST). Eur J Surg Oncol. 2009;35(7):739–45.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Mbulaiteye SM, Parkin DM, Rabkin CS. Epidemiology of AIDS-related malignancies an international perspective. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2003;17(3):673–96, v.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Chang Y, Cesarman E, Pessin MS, et al. Identification of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi’s sarcoma. Science. 1994;266(5192):1865–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Antman K, Chang Y. Kaposi’s sarcoma. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(14):1027–38.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  216. Weber JN, Carmichael DJ, Boylston A, Munro A, Whitear WP, Pinching AJ. Kaposi’s sarcoma of the bowel–presenting as apparent ulcerative colitis. Gut. 1985;26(3):295–300.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Lorenz HP, Wilson W, Leigh B, Schecter WP. Kaposi’s sarcoma of the rectum in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Surg. 1990;160(6):681–2; discussion 682–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Biggs BA, Crowe SM, Lucas CR, Ralston M, Thompson IL, Hardy KJ. AIDS related Kaposi’s sarcoma presenting as ulcerative colitis and complicated by toxic megacolon. Gut. 1987;28(10):1302–6.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Grossmann EM, Audisio RA, Geraghty JG, Longo WE. Rare Histiotypes. In: Audisio RA, Geraghty JG, Longo WE, editors. Modern management of cancer of the rectum. London: Springer; 2001. p. 179–90.

    Google Scholar 

  220. Miettinen M, Lasota J. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors: pathology and prognosis at different sites. Sem Diagn Pathol. 2006;23:70–83.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Surgery, Yale-New Haven Hospital, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA

    Danielle M. Bello MD

  2. Yale Colon and Rectal Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA

    Hulda M. Einarsdottir MD

  3. Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA

    Vikram B. Reddy MD, PhD, FACS, FASCRS

  4. Section of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA

    Walter E. Longo MD, FACS, FASCRS

Authors
  1. Danielle M. Bello MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hulda M. Einarsdottir MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Vikram B. Reddy MD, PhD, FACS, FASCRS
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Walter E. Longo MD, FACS, FASCRS
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hulda M. Einarsdottir MD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Colon and Rectal Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA

    Walter E. Longo

  2. Colon and Rectal Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA

    Vikram Reddy

  3. University of Liverpool St Helens Teaching Hospital, St Helens, United Kingdom

    Riccardo A. Audisio

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer-Verlag London

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bello, D.M., Einarsdottir, H.M., Reddy, V.B., Longo, W.E. (2015). Less Common Rectal Tumors. In: Longo, W., Reddy, V., Audisio, R. (eds) Modern Management of Cancer of the Rectum. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6609-2_22

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6609-2_22

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-6608-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-6609-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation