1.1 Definition

The transport system can be considered as a physical entity for the mobility of persons and physical movements of freight/goods shipments between their (ultimate) origins and destinations. The entity consists of infrastructure, transport means/vehicles, supporting facilities and equipment, workforce, and organizational forms of their use. Energy/fuel is consumed to build/manufacture and operate the infrastructure, transport means/vehicles, and facilities and equipment. The transport system includes different forms/modes such as rail, road, water, air, and their sensible/wise combinations operating as intermodal or multimodal transport service networks. Depending on the volumes and intensity of passenger and freight/goods demand, each mode has different self-contained components distinguished mainly with respect to the type of technologies, resources used, and concepts of providing transport services. Consequently, in the remaining text, the term “systems” is used for these rather complex components of the transport system.

The above-mentioned systems operated by different transport modes provide services in urban, suburban, and interurban regions, thus covering different spatial/geographical scales implying short, medium, and long transport distances, respectively. These systems include both conventional and advanced elements. In the remaining text, those with predominantly advanced elements as compared to their preceding counterparts are referred to as “advanced systems.” The attribute “advanced” implies that the given system is superior compared to its closest preceding counterpart(s) in the same or different transport mode(s), with respect to one, a few, and/or all infrastructural, technical/technological,Footnote 1 and/or operational performances. In many cases, economic, environmental, and social/policy performances are also taken into account to refer to such systems as “advanced.”

Similar to their conventional counterparts, advanced transport systems consist of physical infrastructure, transport means/vehicles, workforce/labor, and supporting facilities and equipment. An important part of the latter is ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems),Footnote 2 which, with components such as sensors and microchips, have already become and will increasingly continue to be an unavoidable part of the transport system. In addition, advanced transport systems consume energy/fuel to perform their primary function of transporting persons and freight/goods shipments according to the specified organization of transport services based on the given operational rules and procedures. In such context, they are designed to provide safe/secure, efficient, effective, environmentally, and socially friendlier services then their conventional (“non-advanced”) counterparts. The first implies the lack of incidents and accidents due to known reasons. The second refers to the lower total, average, and marginal costs of services offered to users/passengers and freight/goods shippers/receivers. In particular, lower average costs per unit of output (p-km and/or t-km) (p-km—passenger kilometer; t-km—ton-kilometer) can make these systems commercially more feasible then their conventional counterparts. The third implies the quality of transport services provided to users/passengers and freight/goods shippers/receivers—attributed to the improved accessibility, regularity, punctuality, reliability, and shorter travel/service time, higher riding comfort, etc. The last includes, on the one hand, lower absolute and relative impacts on the environment and society in terms of land use (take), energy consumption and related emissions of GHG (Green House Gases),Footnote 3 local noise, congestion, and waste, and on the other, greater contribution to social welfare such as employment and GDP (Gross Domestic Product) on the local, regional, national, and global scale.

1.2 Classification

Advanced transport systems can be classified with respect to different attributes/criteria. Some relate to their advanced components and some to the level of their commercialization.

1.2.1 Attributes/Criteria Related to Advanced Components

Advanced transport systems can be classified depending on a single and/or combination of dominant (prevailing) advanced components and related performances of their infrastructure, technics/technologies of transport means/vehicles and supporting facilities and equipment, energy/fuel used, pattern of operations, economic/business model, and impacts/effects on the environment and society. Consequently, in this book, advanced transport systems are ultimately distinguished and elaborated, independently on the transport mode, as follows:

  • Systems with advanced technics/technologies of transport means/vehicles often implying modified operations and in some specific cases infrastructure such as high-speed tilting passenger trains, road mega trucks, large commercial freight aircraft, and advanced commercial aircraft (for example, the most recent Boeing B787-8 and the forthcoming Airbus A350);

  • Systems with sometimes slightly modified technics/technologies of transport means/vehicles and advanced operations aiming at improving the efficiency and effectiveness of transport services such as the BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) System systems, advanced freight collection/distribution networks, LIFTs (Long Intermodal Freight Train(s)) (in Europe), and the APT (Air Passenger Transport) system;

  • Systems with advanced technics/technologies of transport means/vehicles and energy/fuel contributing to the consequent environmental effects/impacts, including advanced passenger cars, large advanced container ships, LH2 (Liquid Hydrogen)-fuelled commercial subsonic aircraft and advanced STA (Supersonic Transport Aircraft); the latter two are alternatives to their current counterparts using crude-oil derivatives-petrol/diesel and kerosene, respectively; and

  • Systems with advanced infrastructure, technics/technologies of transport means/vehicles, and consequently operations and business model such as HSR (High-Speed Rail), TRM (TransRapid MAGLEV (MAGnetic LEVitation)) system, PRT (Personal Rapid Transit) and UFT (Underground Urban Freight) systems in urban areas, and the long-distance ETT (Evacuated Tube Transport) system; additionally, the advanced technologies and procedures in the ATC (Air Traffic Control) system for increasing the airport runway capacity can be categorized in this category.

At present, except the ETT system, none of the above-mentioned existing and/or forthcoming systems possesses all six—infrastructural, technical/technological, operational, economic, environmental, and social/policy—advanced elements. On the one hand, this indicates a lack of completely new systems in the medium- to long-term future, and on the other, their present and prospective mainly evolutionary rather than revolutionary development and commercialization.

1.2.2 Attributes/Criteria Related to Level of Commercialization

Advanced transport systems are usually developed in five phases reflecting the level of their commercialization as follows:

  • Exploratory research delivering ideas and concepts;

  • Applied research resulting in understanding and further elaboration of the particular ideas and concepts;

  • Pre-industrial development resulting in prototypes and carrying out pilot operational trials;

  • Industrialization resulting in production/manufacturing; and

  • Commercialization implying physical implementation and operationalization.

Consequently, advanced transport systems can be categorized into four categories as follows:

  • Category I includes systems that have passed all five phases and are fully commercialized;

  • Category II includes systems that have passed all five phases but have been commercialized on a very limited scope and scale;

  • Category III includes systems that have passed two or at most three of the above-mentioned (five) phases, implying that they are still waiting for or just undergoing pilot operational trials and industrialization; and

  • Category IV includes systems in the exploratory phase waiting for the “green light” in order to pass to subsequent phase(s).

This book considers advanced transport systems categorized according to the level of their commercialization as given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Classification of advanced transport systems respecting their level of commercialization
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1.3 Performances

Dealing with advanced transport systems usually raises the question of their performances, i.e., their ability to satisfy current and prospective needs and expectations of particular actors/stakeholders involved. Such an approach requires analyzing, modeling, and evaluating particular performances.

1.3.1 Definition

Advanced transport systems are generally characterized by infrastructural, technical/technological, operational, economic, environmental, social, and policy performances.

  • Infrastructural and technical/technological performances mainly reflect physical, constructive, technical, and technological features of infrastructure, transport means/vehicles, and supporting facilities and equipment, respectively, enabling them to carry out the specified transport operations serving the specified volumes of passenger and freight/goods demand under given conditions.

  • Operational performances imply quantitative and qualitative capabilities to serve given volumes of passenger and freight/goods demand.

  • Economic performances reflect the efficiency of serving given volumes of passenger and freight/goods demand expressed by costs of services covered by the relevant charges (prices).

  • Environmental and social performances reflect the intensity and scale of physical impacts on the environment and society. If monetized, these impacts are considered as externalities.

  • Policy performances reflect compliance with current and future medium- to long-term transport policy regulations and specified targets.

Although these performances are usually considered independently, they are inherently strongly dependent and interactive with each other as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1
figure 1

Potential interaction between advanced transport system performances

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In the “top-down” consideration, infrastructural performances influence technical/technological performances and consequently create mutual influence between these and all other performances. In the “bottom-up” consideration, social/policy performances influence infrastructural and technical/technological performances and consequently also create mutual influence of these and all other performances.

For example, the technical/technological performances of transport means/vehicles and supporting facilities and equipment can require completely new infrastructure and consequently pattern of operations, which can influence the economic, environmental, and social performances. Some examples include HSR (High-Speed Rail), TRM (TransRapid MAGLEV (MAGnetic LEVitation)), and ETT (Evacuated Tube Transport). In some other cases, the economic performances can strongly influence the operational performances. Examples of this include advanced freight collection/distribution networks, long intermodal freight trains, and road mega trucks in Europe, as well as large commercial freight aircraft. In addition, the technical/technological performances may directly influence the operational and indirectly the economic performances of particular advanced transport systems using the existing infrastructure. Examples include the BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) System system in urban areas, high-speed tilting passenger trains, large advanced container ships, advanced commercial subsonic and supersonic passenger aircraft, and advanced ATC (Air Traffic Control) technologies aimed at increasing the airport runway capacity. Last but not least, the required environmental and/or social performances can speed up development and commercialization of completely technically/technologically new systems such as advanced passenger cars (that use electricity and/or LH2 (Liquid Hydrogen) instead of the currently used crude oil-based petrol/diesel), the PRT (Personal Rapid Transit) and UFT (Underground Freight Transport) system (that uses electricity), and advanced STA (Supersonic Transport Aircraft) (that uses LH2 instead of the crude-oil derivative kerosene (JP-1)).

The main actors/stakeholders involved in dealing with advanced transport systems include:

  • Investors, constructors/manufacturers of infrastructure, transport means/vehicles, supportive facilities and equipment, and suppliers of raw material energy/fuel;

  • Providers and operators of transport infrastructure and services, respectively;

  • Users of transport services (passengers and freight/goods shippers/receivers);

  • Policy/decision makers at local, regional, national, and international level and related associations; and

  • The local population both benefiting and being affected by the given systems.

Their interests and individual objectives can coincide or be in conflict with each other. For example, investors generally prefer to see a return on their investments over the specified/planned period of time. Suppliers of raw material and energy, and all related manufacturers prefer growth of these systems bringing them economic benefits. In this case, the objectives and interests coincide and influence each other downstream the chain of commercialization of the given advanced transport system(s). Providers and operators of transport infrastructure prefer its utilization at least at the level of covering operational and maintenance costs under the given pricing policy. Transport operators prefer efficient, effective, and safe transport means/vehicles providing services attractive to their users. Users/passengers and freight/goods shippers/receivers have the same preferences as transport operators, but from the perspective of experiencing the expected quality, safety, and security of the consumed services at reasonable/acceptable prices. Policy/decision makers and related associations at the particular institutional/organizational levels prefer efficient, effective, and safe advanced transport systems fully satisfying the overall user, social, and policy needs. In certain respects, these preferences and objectives, particularly those related to the policy, may be in direct conflict with those of transport infrastructure and service providers, and in indirect conflict with those of raw materials’ suppliers and system manufacturers. Local communities usually have two sets of conflicting preferences. On the one hand, acting as prospective users they prefer advanced transport systems with the maximal availability in space (as close as possible and easily physically accessible) and time (frequent services). On the other, due to their proximity, the same people often complain about the impacts of these systems such as local air pollution, noise, induced road congestion, and compromised/demolished landscape. Consequently, these last mentioned preferences are essentially conflicting with the preferences of all other actors/stakeholders involved including those they themselves experience as users of the systems.

The above-mentioned approach in dealing with performances of advanced transport systems indicates that it is very difficult if not even impossible to simultaneously satisfy (conflicting) objectives and interests of all actors/stakeholders involved. However, as it will be shown, it is possible to come very close to achieving some balance between them.

1.3.2 Analyzing, Modeling, and Evaluation

Analyzing the performances of advanced transport systems implies gaining insight into their characteristics and the main influencing factors.

Modeling the performances of advanced transport systems implies defining the indicators and measures of performances and establishing the analytical/quantitative relationships between them and the main influencing factors. This enables sensitivity analysis to be carried out systematically by providing a range of inputs for planning and designing the considered system(s). In addition, modeling provides the opportunity to check the quality of particular models/methodologies by using the inputs from the considered cases and comparing their outputs/results with their real-life counterparts. Last but not least, modeling provides input for planning and design of particular system’s performances according to the “what-if” scenario approach. Consequently, this enables their further evaluation according to the given set of attributes/criteria, chosen according to their relevance to the particular actors/stakeholders involved.

Evaluation of performances of advanced transport systems can generally be qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative evaluation implies identification of advantages (Strengths and Opportunities) and disadvantages (Weaknesses and Threats) of the particular advanced system perceived by the current and prospective actors/stakeholders, i.e., applying a simplified SWOT analysis. Quantitative evaluation implies choosing the preferable among the specified set of alternatives with respect to the specified attributes/criteria reflecting their performances relevant for the DM (Decision Maker) by using one of the multicriteria evaluation methods. This enables ranking and calculating the scores of the available alternatives and then choosing the one with the highest score as the preferred option.

1.4 Composition of the Book

In addition to this introductory chapter, the book consists of six chapters, each consisting of sections (subchapters) elaborating on a particular advanced transport system. At the beginning of each section, bullet-like historical milestones in development of the given system are provided. At the end of each section, a qualitative evaluation of this system is presented by emphasizing its presumed advantages and disadvantages viewed by the particular actors/stakeholders involved.

Chapter 2 elaborates the advanced operational and technological performances of the BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) Systems high-speed tilting passenger train(s), and advanced commercial subsonic aircraft.

Chapter 3 deals with the operational and economic performances of advanced freight collection/distribution networks, road mega trucks and LIFTs (Long Intermodal Freight Trains) (in Europe), as well as large commercial freight aircraft.

Chapter 4 elaborates the technical/technological and environmental performances of advanced passenger cars, large advanced container ships, and the LH2 (Liquid Hydrogen)-fuelled commercial air transport system.

Chapter 5 deals with the multicriteria ranking of different HS (High-Speed) passenger transport systems—HSR (High-Speed Rail), APT (Air Passenger Transport), and TRM (TransRapid Maglev)—with respect to their infrastructural, technical/technological, operational, economic, and environmental, and social/policy performances.

Chapter 6 elaborates performances of the future systems such as: PRT (Personal Rapid Transit) and UFT (Underground Freight Transport) as urban and/or suburban passenger and freight transport systems, respectively; ETT (Evacuated Tube Transport) as a very high-speed long-distance intercontinental transport system for both passengers and freight/goods; advanced Air Traffic Control (ATC) technologies and operations aimed at increasing the airport runway capacity; and advanced long-haul STA (Supersonic Transport Aircraft).

The last Chap. 7 summarizes the potential contribution of the advanced transport systems to sustainability, i.e., greening, of the transport sector above-mentioned.