Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Surgical Guide to Circumcision pp 201–231Cite as

Current Medical Evidence Supports Male Circumcision

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

Circumcision has a wide array of potential benefits over the lifetime of males, and relatively few risks. Up to one in three males worldwide, if not circumcised, may suffer a medical condition caused by their foreskin [1–3]. In contrast, the risks of the procedure itself are less than 1% in infancy and less than 5% in older children and adults. The benefits have been calculated by some, to exceed risks by over 100 to one [1–3]. Figure 19.1 illustrates why the foreskin represents a risk to health.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Morris BJ. Why circumcision is a biomedical imperative for the 21st century. Bioessays. 2007;29:1147–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Morris BJ. Circumcision: an evidence-based appraisal – medical, health and sexual [Review]. 2010. http://www.circinfo.net. (over 1,000 references) [accessed Jan 4, 2011].

  3. Morris BJ, Bailis SA, Castellsague X, Wiswell TE, Halperin DT. RACP’s policy statement on infant male circumcision is ill-conceived. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2006;30:16–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Wright J. How smegma serves the penis? Sexology. 1970;37:50–3.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Iskit S, Ilkit M, Turç-Biçer A, Demirhindi H, Türker M. Effect of circumcision on genital colonization of Malassezia spp. in a pediatric population. Med Mycol. 2006;44:113–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Parker SW, Stewart AJ, Wren MN, Gollow MM, Straton JA. Circumcision and sexually transmissible diseases. Med J Aust. 1983;2:288–90.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Richters J, Smith AM, de Visser RO, Grulich AE, Rissel CE. Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health. Int J STD AIDS. 2006;17:547–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Ferris JA, Richters J, Pitts MK, Shelley JM, Simpson JM, Ryall R, Smith AMA. Circumcision in Australia: further evidence on its effects on sexual health and wellbeing. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2010;34:160–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Aridogan IA, Ilkit M, Izol V, Ates A, Demirhindi H. Glans penis and prepuce colonisation of yeast fungi in a paediatric population: pre- and postcircumcision results. Mycoses. 2009;52:49–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Fergusson DM, Lawton JM, Shannon FT. Neonatal circumcision and penile problems: an 8-year longitudinal study. Pediatrics. 1988;81:537–41.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Herzog LW, Alvarez SR. The frequency of foreskin problems in uncircumcised children. Am J Dis Child. 1986;140:254–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Fakjian N, Hunter S, Cole GW, Miller J. An argument for circumcision. Prevention of balanitis in the adult. Arch Dermatol. 1990;126:1046–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Kohn F-M, Pflieger-Bruss S, Schill W-B. Penile skin diseases. Andrologia. 1999;31 Suppl 1:3–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Schoen EJ. Circumcision as a lifetime vaccination with many benefits. J Mens Health Gen. 2007;382:306–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Mallon E, Hawkins D, Dinneen M, Francis N, Fearfield L, Newson R, Bunker C. Circumcision and genital dermatoses. Arch Dermatol. 2000;136:350–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. English JC, Laws RA, Keough GC, Wilde JL, Foley JP, Elston DM. Dermatoses of the glans penis and prepuce. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997;37:1–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Singh S, Bunker C. Male genital dermatoses in old age. Age Ageing. 2008;37:500–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Schoen EJ. Male circumcision. In: Kandeel FR, Lue TF, Pryor JL, Swerdloff RS, editors. Male sexual dysfunction. Pathophysiology and treatment. New York: Informa; 2007. p. 95–107.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Micali G, Nasca MR, Innocenzi D, Schwartz RA. Penile cancer. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006;54:369–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Kiss A, Kiraly L, Kutasy B, Merksz M. High incidence of balanitis xerotica obliterans in boys with phimosis: prospective 10-year study. Pediatr Dermatol. 2005;22:305–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Griffiths D, Frank JD. Inappropriate circumcision referrals by GPs. J R Soc Med. 1992;85:324–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Huntley JS, Bourne MC, Munro FD, Wilson-Storey D. Troubles with the foreskin: one hundred consecutive referrals to paediatric surgeons. J R Soc Med. 2003;96:449–51.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Kumar B, Narang T, DassRadotra B, Gupta S. Plasma cell balanitis: clinicopathologic study of 112 cases and treatment modalities. J Cutan Med Surg. 2006;10:11–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Rossi E, Pavanello P, Franchella A. Lichen sclerosus in children with phimosis. Minerva Pediatr. 2007;59:761–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Aynaud O, Piron D, Casanova J-M. Incidence of preputial lichen sclerosis in adults: histologic study of circumcision specimens. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1999;41:923–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Gairdner D. The fate of the foreskin: a study of circumcision. Br Med J. 1949;2:1433–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Osmond TE. Is routine circumcision advisable? J R Army Med Corps. 1953;99:254.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Velazquez EF, Bock A, Soskin A, Codas R, Arbo M, Cubilla AL. Preputial variability and preferential association of long phimotic foreskins with penile cancer: an anatomic comparative study of types of foreskin in a general population and cancer patients. Am J Surg Pathol. 2003;27:994–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Oster J. Further fate of the foreskin: incidence of preputial adhesions, phimosis and smegma among Danish schoolboys. Arch Dis Child. 1968;43:200–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Saitmacher F. Socialhygienische betrachtungen zu einer routinemassigen zikumzision mannlicher sauglinge. Dtsche Gesundheitwesen. 1960;15:1217–20.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Schoeberlein W. Bedeutung und haeufigkeit von phimose und smegma. Significance and frequency of phimosis and smegma (translated by Kasper JP, 1997; edited by Bailis SA, 1997). Muench Med Wochenschr. 1966;7:373–7.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Ben KL, Xu JC, Lu L, Yao JP, Min XD, Li WY, Tao J, Wang J, Li JJ, Cao XM. Promoting male circumcision in China for preventing HIV infection and improving reproductive health (article in Chinese). Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue. 2008;14:291–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Yang C, Liu X, Wei GH. Foreskin development in 10,421 Chinese boys aged 0–18 years. World J Pediatr. 2009;5:312–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Ohjimi T, Ohjimi H. Special surgical techniques for the relief of phimosis. J Dermatol Surg Oncol. 1981;7:326–30.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Ishikawa E, Kawakita M. Preputial development in Japanese boys. Hinyokika Kiyo. 2004;50:305–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Kayaba H, Tamura H, Kitajima S, Fujiwara Y, Kato T, Kato T. Analysis of shape and retractability of the prepuce in 603 Japanese boys. J Urol. 1996;156:1813–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Su CY, Yin YL. The relationship between preputial condition and personal hygienic practice of senior school boys in two primary schools. J Fam Med ROC. 2001;11:153–63.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Boon ME, Susanti I, Tasche MJ, Kok LP. Human papillomavirus (HPV) associated male and female genital carcinomas in a Hindu population. The male as a vector and victim. Cancer. 1989;64:559–65.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Ginsburg CM, McCracken GH. Urinary tract infections in young children. Pediatrics. 1982;69:409–12.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Wiswell TE, Roscelli JD. Corroborative evidence for the decreased incidence of urinary tract infections in circumcised male infants. Pediatrics. 1982;69:96–9.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Wiswell TE, Smith FR, Bass JW. Decreased incidence of urinary tract infections in circumcised male infants. Pediatrics. 1985;75:901–3.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Wiswell TE, Geschke DW. Risks from circumcision during the first month of life compared with those for uncircumcised boys. Pediatrics. 1989;83:1011–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Wiswell TE, Hachey WE. Urinary tract infections and the circumcision state: an update. Clin Pediatr. 1993;32:130–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Conway PH, Cnaan A, Zaoutis T, Henry BV, Grundmeier RW. Recurrent urinary tract infections in children: risk factors and association with prophylactic antimicrobials. J Am Med Assoc. 2007;298:179–86.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Singh-Grewal D, Macdessi J, Craig J. Circumcision for the prevention of urinary tract infections in boys: a systematic review of randomized trials and observational studies. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90:853–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Jakobsson B, Esbjörner E, Hansson S. Minimum incidence and diagnostic rate of first urinary tract infection. Pediatrics. 1999;Part 1:222–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Simforoosh N, Tabibi A, Khalili SA, Soltani MH, Afjehi A, Aalami F, Bodoohi H. Neonatal circumcision reduces the incidence of asymptomatic urinary tract infection: a large prospective study with ­long-term follow up using Plastibell. J Pediatr Urol. 2012;8:320–3.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Shaikh N, Morone NE, Bost JE, Farrell MH. Prevalence of urinary tract infection in childhood: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27:302–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Schwartz S, Raveh D, Toker O, Segal G, Godovitch N, Schlesinger Y. A week-by-week analysis of the low-risk criteria for serious bacterial infection in febrile neonates. Arch Dis Child. 2009;94:287–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Sureshkumar P, Jones M, Cumming RG, Craig JC. Risk factors for urinary tract infection in children: a population-based study of 2856 children. J Paediatr Child Health. 2009;45:87–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Newman TB, Bernzweig JA, Takayama JI, Finch SA, Wasserman RC, Pantell RH. Urine testing and urinary tract infections in febrile infants seen in office settings: the Pediatric Research in Office Settings’ Febrile Infant Study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002; 156:44–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Rushton HG, Majd M. Dimercaptosuccinic acid renal scintigraphy for the evaluation of pyelonephritis and scarring: a review of experimental and clinical studies. J Urol. 1992;148:1726–32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Hoberman A, Wald ER, Hickey RW, Baskin M, Charron M, Majd M, Kearney DH, Reynolds EA, Ruley J, Janosky JE. Oral versus initial intravenous therapy for urinary tract infections in young febrile children. Pediatrics. 1999;104(Part 1):79–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Rushton HG. Urinary tract infections in children. Epidemiology, evaluation, and management. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1997;44:1133–69.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Jakobsson B, Berg U, Svensson L. Renal scarring after acute pyelonephritis. Arch Dis Child. 1994;71:386–7.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Benador D, Benador N, Slosman D, Mermillod B, Girardin E. Are younger children at highest risk of renal sequelae after pyelonephritis? Lancet. 1997;349:17–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Wallin L, Bajc M. Typical technetium dimercaptosuccinic acid distribution patterns in acute pyelonephritis. Acta Paediatr. 1993;82:1061–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Alsaywid BS, Saleh H, Deshpande A, Howman-Giles R, Smith GH. High grade primary vesicoureteral reflux in boys: long-term results of a prospective cohort study. J Urol. 2010;184(Suppl):1598–603.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Spach DH, Stapleton AE, Stamm WE. Lack of circumcision increases the risk of urinary tract infections in young men. J Am Med Assoc. 1992;267:679–81.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Griebling TL. Urologic diseases in America project: trends in resource use for urinary tract infections in men. J Urol. 2005;173:1288–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Griebling TL. Urinary tract infection in men. In: Litwin MS, Saigal CS, editors. Urologic diseases in America. NIH Publication No. 07–5512 ed. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; US Government Printing Office; 2007, p. 623–45. http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/statistics/uda/.

  62. Xu F, Markowitz LE, Sternberg MR, Aral SO. Prevalence of circumcision and herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in men in the United States: the national health and nutrition examination survey (NHANES), 1999–2004. Sex Transm Dis. 2007;34:479–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Litwin MS, Saigal CS, Beerbohm EM. The burden of urologic diseases in America. J Urol. 2005;173:1065–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Fussell EN, Kaak BM, Cherry R, Roberts JA. Adherence of bacteria to human foreskin. J Urol. 1988;140:997–1001.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Glennon J, Ryan PI, Keane CT, Rees JPR. Circumcision and periurethral carriage of Proteus mirabilis in boys. Arch Dis Child. 1988;63:556–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Kallenius G, Moillby R, Svenson SB, Helin I, Hultberg H, Cedergren B, Winberg J. Occurrence of P-fimbriated Escherichia coli in urinary tract infections. Lancet. 1981;2:1369–72.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Stull TL, LiPuma JJ. Epidemiology and natural history of urinary tract infections in children [review]. Med Clin N Am. 1991;75:287–97.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Kallenius G, Svenson S, Mollby R, Cedergren B, Hultberg H, Winberg J. Structure of carbohydrate part of receptor on human uroepithelial cells for pyelonephritogenic Escherichia coli. Lancet. 1981;2:604–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Wiswell TE, Miller GM, Gelston Jr HM, Jones SK. Effects of circumcision status on periurethral bacterial flora during the first year of life. J Paediatr. 1988;113:442–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Hutchinson J. On the influence of circumcision in preventing syphilis. Med Times Gazette. 1855;2:542–3.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Wilson RA. Circumcision and venereal disease. Can Med Assoc J. 1947;56:54–6.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Morris BJ, Castellsague X. The role of circumcision in prevention of STIs. In: Gross GE, Tyring S, editors. Sexually Transmitted Infections and Sexually Transmitted Diseases, chapter 54, Springer, Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 715–739.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Weiss HA, Thomas SL, Munabi SK, Hayes RJ. Male circumcision and risk of syphilis, chancroid, and genital herpes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sex Transm Infect. 2006;82:101–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Gray RH, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Makumbi F, Watya S, Nalugoda F, Kiwanuka N, Moulton LH, Chaudhary MA, Chen MZ, Sewankambo NK, Wabwire-Mangen F, Bacon MC, Williams CF, Opendi P, Reynolds SJ, Laeyendecker O, Quinn TC, Wawer MJ. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2007;369:657–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Taljaard D, Lissouba P, Zarca K, Puren A, Lagarde E, Auvert B. Effect of HSV-2 serostatus on acquisition of HIV by young men: results of a longitudinal study in Orange Farm, South Africa. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:958–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Tobian AAR, Charvat B, Ssempijja V, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Makumbi F, Iga B, Laeyendecker O, Riedesel M, Oliver A, Chen MZ, Reynolds SJ, Wawer MJ, Gray RH, Quinn TC. Factors associated with the prevalence and incidence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection among men in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:945–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Tobian AAR, Serwadda D, Quinn TC, Kigozi G, Gravitt PE, Laeyendecker O, Charvat B, Ssempijja V, Riedesel M, Oliver AE, Nowak RG, Moulton LH, Chen MZ, Reynolds SJ, Wawer MJ, Gray RH. Male circumcision for the prevention of HSV-2 and HPV infections and syphilis. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1298–309.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Dickson N, van Roode T, Paul C. Herpes simplex virus type 2 status at age 26 is not related to early circumcision in a birth cohort. Sex Transm Dis. 2005;32:517–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Bailey RC, Mehta SD. Circumcision’s place in the vicious cycle involving herpes simplex virus type 2 and HIV. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:923–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Jerath VP, Mahajan VK. Does circumcision influence recurrences in herpes genitalis? Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2009;75:575–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Mahiane SG, Legeai C, Taljaard D, Latouche A, Puren A, Peillon A, Bretagnolle J, Lissouba P, Nguema EP, Gassiat E, Auvert B. Transmission probabilities of HIV and herpes simplex virus type 2, effect of male circumcision and interaction: a longitudinal study in a township of South Africa. AIDS. 2009;23:377–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Tobian AA, Quinn TC. Herpes simplex virus type 2 and syphilis infections with HIV: an evolving synergy in transmission and prevention. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2009;4:294–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Zhu J, Hladik F, Woodward A, Klock A, Peng T, Johnston C, Remington M, Magaret A, Koelle DM, Wald A, Corey L. Persistence of HIV-1 receptor-positive cells after HSV-2 reactivation is a potential mechanism for increased HIV-1 acquisition. Nat Med. 2009;15:886–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Van Wagoner NJ, Geisler WM, Sizemore Jr JM, Whitley R, Hook 3rd EW. Herpes simplex virus in African American heterosexual males: the roles of age and male circumcision. Sex Transm Dis. 2010;37:217–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Price LB, Liu CM, Johnson KE, Aziz M, Lau MK, Jolene Bowers J, Jacques Ravel J, Keim PS, Serwadda D, Wawer MJ, Gray RH. The effects of circumcision on the penis microbiome. PLoS ONE. 2010;5:e8422 (12 pages). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.000842e.

  86. Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Taljaard D, Nieuwoudt M, Lissouba P, Puren A, Auvert B. Male circumcision and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Trichomonas vaginalis: observations in the aftermath of a randomised controlled trial for HIV prevention. Sex Transm Infect. 2009;85:116–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Gray RH, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Makumbi F, Nalugoda F, Watya S, Moulton L, Chen MZ, Sewankambo NK, Kiwanuka N, Sempijja V, Lutalo T, Kagayii J, Wabwire-Mangen F, Ridzon R, Bacon M, Wawer MJ. The effects of male circumcision on female partners’ genital tract symptoms and vaginal infections in a randomized trial in Rakai, Uganda. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009;200:e1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Mehta SD, Moses S, Agot K, Parker C, Ndinya-Achola JO, Maclean I, Bailey RC. Adult male circumcision does not reduce the risk of incident Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, or Trichomonas vaginalis infection: results from a randomized, controlled trial in Kenya. J Infect Dis. 2009;200:370–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Templeton DJ, Jin F, Prestage GP, Donovan B, Imrie JC, Kippax SC, Cunningham PH, Kaldor JM, Mindel A, Cunningham AL, Grulich AE. Circumcision and risk of sexually transmissible infections in a community-based cohort of HIV-negative homosexual men in Sydney, Australia. J Infect Dis. 2009;200:1813–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Jameson DR, Celum CL, Manhart L, Menza TW, Golden MR. The association between lack of circumcision and HIV, HSV-2, and other sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Dis. 2010;37:145–52.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Maden C, Sherman KJ, Beckmann AM, Huslop TK, Heh OZ, Ashley RL, Daling JR. History of circumcision, medical conditions, and sexual activity and risk of penile cancer. J Nat Cancer Inst. 1993;85:19–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Wolbarst AL. Circumcision and penile cancer. Lancet. 1932;1:150–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Schoen EJ, Wiswell TE, Moses S. New policy on circumcision – cause for concern. Pediatrics. 2000;105:620–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Schoen EJ, Oehrli M, Colby CJ, Machin G. The highly protective effect of newborn circumcision against invasive penile cancer. Pediatrics. 2000;105:e36 (34 pages).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Kochen M, McCurdy S. Circumcision and risk of cancer of the penis. A life-table analysis. Am J Dis Child. 1980;134:484–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. American Cancer Society. Cancer statistics. 2005. http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_1X_What_are_the_key_statistics_for_penile_cancer_35.asp?rnav=cri [accessed Jan 4, 2011].

  97. Favorito LA, Nardi AC, Ronalsa M, Zequi SC, Sampaio FJ, Glina S. Epidemiologic study on penile cancer in Brazil. Int Braz J Urol. 2008;34:587–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Bogaards JA, Xiridou M, Coupé VM, Meijer CJ, Wallinga J, Berkhof J. Model-based estimation of viral transmissibility and infection-induced resistance from the age-dependent prevalence of infection for 14 high-risk types of human papillomavirus. Am J Epidemiol. 2010;171:817–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Morris BJ, Gray RH, Castellsague X, Bosch FX, Halperin DT, Waskett JH, Hankins CA. The strong protection afforded by circumcision against cancer of the penis. Adv Urol. 2011: Article ID 812368 (21pages).

    Google Scholar 

  100. Castellsague X, Bosch FX, Munoz N, Meijer CJLM, Shah KV, de Sanjose S, Eluf-Neto J, Ngelangel CA, Chichareon S, Smith JS, Herrero R, Franceschi S. Male circumcision, penile human papillomavirus infection, and cervical cancer in female partners. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1105–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Vaccarella S, Lazcano-Ponce E, Castro-Garduño JA, Cruz-Valdez A, Díaz V, Schiavon R, Hernández P, Kornegay JR, Hernández-Avila M, Franceschi S. Prevalence and determinants of human papillomavirus infection in men attending vasectomy clinics in Mexico. Int J Cancer. 2006;119:1934–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Lajous M, Mueller N, Cruz-Valdez A, Aguilar LV, Franceschi S, Hernandez-Avila M, Lazcano-Ponce E. Determinants of prevalence, acquisition, and persistence of human papillomavirus in healthy Mexican military men. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:1710–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Hernandez BY, Wilkens LR, Zhu X, McDuffie K, Thompson P, Shvetsov YB, Ning L, Goodman MT. Circumcision and human papillomavirus infection in men: a site-specific comparison. J Infect Dis. 2008;197:787–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Giuliano AR, Lazcano E, Villa LL, Flores R, Salmeron J, Lee JH, Papenfuss M, Abrahamsen M, Baggio ML, Silva R, Quiterio M. Circumcision and sexual behavior: factors independently associated with human papillomavirus detection among men in the HIM study. Int J Cancer. 2009;124:1251–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Nielson CM, Schiaffino MK, Dunne EF, Salemi JL, Giuliano AR. Associations between male anogenital human papillomavirus infection and circumcision by anatomic site sampled and lifetime number of female sex partners. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:7–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Smith JS, Backes DM, Hudgens MG, Bailey RC, Veronesi G, Bogaarts M, Agot K, Ndinya-Achola JO, Maclean I, Agingu W, Meijer CJ, Moses S, Snijders PJ. Prevalence and risk factors of human papillomavirus infection by penile site in uncircumcised Kenyan men. Int J Cancer. 2010;126:572–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Bosch FX, Albero G, Castellsagué X. Male circumcision, human papillomavirus and cervical cancer: from evidence to intervention. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care. 2009;35:5–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Gray RH. Infectious disease: male circumcision for preventing HPV infection. Nat Rev Urol. 2009;6:298–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Gray RH, Serwadda D, Kong X, Makumbi F, Kigozi G, Gravitt PE, Watya S, Nalugoda F, Ssempijja V, Tobian AA, Kiwanuka N, Moulton LH, Sewankambo NK, Reynolds SJ, Quinn TC, Iga B, Laeyendecker O, Oliver AE, Wawer MJ. Male circumcision decreases acquisition and increases clearance of high-risk human papillomavirus in HIV-negative men: a randomized trial in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:1455–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Auvert B, Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Cutler E, Nieuwoudt M, Lissouba P, Puren A, Taljaard D. Effect of male circumcision on the prevalence of high-risk human papillomavirus in young men: results of a randomized controlled trial conducted in orange farm, South Africa. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:14–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Gray RH, Wawer MJ, Serwadda D, Kigozi G. The role of male circumcision in the prevention of human papillomavirus and HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:1–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Serwadda D, Wawer MJ, Makumbi F, Kong X, Kigozi G, Gravitt P, Watya S, Nalugoda F, Ssempijja V, Tobian AA, Kiwanuka N, Moulton LH, Sewankambo NK, Reynolds SJ, Quinn TC, Oliver AE, Iga B, Laeyendecker O, Gray RH. Circumcision of HIV-infected men: effects on high-risk human papillomavirus infections in a randomized trial in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:1463–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Auvert B, Lissouba P, Cutler E, Zarca K, Puren A, Taljaard D. Association of oncogenic and nononcogenic human papillomavirus with HIV incidence. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;53:111–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Dickson NP, Ryding J, van Roode T, Paul C, Herbison P, Dillner J, Skegg DC. Male circumcision and serologically determined human papillomavirus infection in a birth cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009;18:177–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Lu B, Wu Y, Nielson CM, Flores R, Abrahamsen M, Papenfuss M, Harris RB, Giuliano AR. Factors associated with acquisition and clearance of human papillomavirus infection in a cohort of US men: a prospective study. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:362–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Hernandez BY, Shvetsov YB, Goodman MT, Wilkens LR, Thompson P, Zhu X, Ning L. Reduced clearance of penile human papillomavirus infection in uncircumcised men. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:1340–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Kong X, Archer KJ, Moulton LH, Gray RH, Wang MC. Parametric frailty models for clustered data with arbitrary censoring: application to effect of male circumcision on HPV clearance. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2010;10:40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Viscidi RP, Shah KV. Adult male circumcision: will it reduce disease caused by human papillomavirus? J Infect Dis. 2010;201:1447–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Nielson CM, Harris RB, Dunne EF, Abrahamsen M, Papenfuss MR, Flores R, Markowitz LE, Giuliano AR. Risk factors for anogenital human papillomavirus infection in men. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:137–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Pratt-Thomas HR, Heins HC, Latham E, Dennis EJ, McIver FA. Carcinogenic effect of human smegma: an experimental study. Cancer. 1956;9:671–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Dennis EJ, Heins HC, Latham E, McIver FA, Pratt-Thomas HR. The carcinogenic effect of human smegma: an experimental study. I. Preliminary report. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1956;9:671–80.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Heins Jr HC, Dennis EJ. The possible role of smegma in carcinoma of the cervix. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1958;76:726–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Reddy DG, Baruah IK. Carcinogenic action of human smegma. Arch Pathol. 1963;75:414.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Tsen HF, Morgenstern H, Mack T, Peters RK. Risk factors for penile cancer: results of a population-based case-control study in Los Angeles county (United States). Cancer Causes Control. 2001;12:267–77.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Reddy CR, Devendranath V, Pratap S. Carcinoma of penis: role of phimosis. Urology. 1984;24:85–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Haneke E. Skin diseases and tumors of the penis. Urol Int. 1982;37:172–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Sayed EI, Viraben R, Bazex J, Daste G, Gorguet B, Rishmann R. Carcinome verruqueux du penis. Nouv Dermatol. 1993;12:112–3.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Dillner J, von Krogh G, Horenblas S, Meijer CJ. Etiology of squamous cell carcinoma of the penis. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 2000;205(Suppl):189–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  129. Powell J, Robson A, Cranston D, Wojnarowska F, Turner R. High incidence of lichen sclerosus in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the penis. Br J Dermatol. 2001;145:85–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Perceau G, Derancourt C, Clavel C, Durlach A, Pluot M, Lardennois B, Bernard P. Lichen sclerosus is frequently present in penile squamous cell carcinomas but is not always associated with oncogenic human papillomavirus. Br J Dermatol. 2003;148:934–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Velazquez EF, Cubilla AL. Lichen sclerosus in 68 patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the penis: frequent atypias and correlation with special carcinoma variants suggests a precancerous role. Am J Surg Pathol. 2003;27:1448–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Pietrzak P, Hadway P, Corbishley CM, Watkin NA. Is the association between balanitis xerotica obliterans and penile carcinoma underestimated? BJU Int. 2006;98:74–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Nasca MR, Innocenzi D, Micali G. Association of penile lichen sclerosus and oncogenic human papillomavirus infection. Int J Dermatol. 2006;45:681–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Ranjan N, Singh SK. Malignant transformation of penile lichen sclerosus: exactly how common is it? Int J Dermatol. 2008;47:1308–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Fernando JJ, Wanas TM. Squamous carcinoma of the penis and previous recurrent balanitis: a case report. Genitourin Med. 1991;67:153–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Zur Hausen H. Herpes simplex virus in human genital cancer. Int Rev Exp Pathol. 1983;25:307–26.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Daling JR, Madeleine MM, Johnson LG, Schwartz SM, Shera KA, Wurscher MA, Carter JJ, Porter PL, Galloway DA, McDougall JK, Krieger JN. Penile cancer: importance of circumcision, human papillomavirus and smoking in in situ and invasive disease. Int J Cancer. 2005;116:606–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Ross RK, Shimizu H, Paganini-Hill A, Honda G, Henderson BE. Case-control studies of prostate cancer in blacks and whites in southern California. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1987;78:869–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Hayes RB, Pottern LM, Strickler H, Rabkin C, Pope V, Swanson GM, Greenberg RS, Schoenberg JB, Liff J, Schwartz AG, Hoover RN, Fraumeni Jr JF. Sexual behaviour, STDs and risks for prostate cancer. Br J Cancer. 2000;82:718–25.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Oliver JC, Oliver RT, Ballard RC. Influence of circumcision and sexual behaviour on PSA levels in patients attending a sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2001;4:228–31.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Dennis LK, Dawson DV. Meta-analysis of measures of sexual activity and prostate cancer. Epidemiology. 2002;13:72–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Fernandez L, Galan Y, Jimenez R, Gutierrez A, Guerra M, Pereda C, Alonso C, Riboli E, Agudo A, Gonzalez C. Sexual behaviour, history of sexually transmitted diseases, and the risk of prostate cancer: a case-control study in Cuba. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:193–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Correa P. Is prostate cancer an infectious disease? Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:197–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Taylor ML, Mainous 3rd AG, Wells BJ. Prostate cancer and sexually transmitted diseases: a meta-analysis. Fam Med. 2005;37:506–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Radhakrishnan S, Lee A, Oliver T, Chinegwundoh F. An infectious cause for prostate cancer. BJU Int. 2007;99:239–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Ravich A, Ravich RA. Prophylaxis of cancer of the prostate, penis, and cervix by circumcision. N Y State J Med. 1951;51:1519–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Apt A. Circumcision and prostatic cancer. Acta Med Scand. 1965;178:493–504.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Ewings P, Bowie C. A case-control study of cancer of the prostate in Somerset and east Devon. Br J Cancer. 1996;74:661–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Morris BJ, Waskett J, Bailis SA. Case number and the financial impact of circumcision in reducing prostate cancer. BJU Int. 2007;100:5–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Fox J, Fidler S. Sexual transmission of HIV-1. Antiviral Res. 2010;85:267–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Simonsen JNM, Cameron DW, Gakinya MN, Ndinya-Achola JO, D’Costa LJ, Karasira P. HIV infection among men with STDs. N Engl J Med. 1988;319:274–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Cameron BE, Simonsen JN, D’Costa LJ, Ronald AR, Maitha GM, Gakinya MN, Cheang M, Dinya-Achola JO, Piot P, Brunham RC, Plummer FA. Female to male transmission of human immuno­deficiency virus type 1: risk factors for seroconversion in men. Lancet. 1989;2:403–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Whittington W, et al. HIV-1 in patients with genital lesions attending a North American STD clinic: assessment of risk factors. Int Conf AIDS. 1989;5:409.

    Google Scholar 

  154. Weiss HA, Quigley MA, Hayes RJ. Male circumcision and risk of HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2000;14:2361–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Auvert B, Taljaard D, Lagarde E, Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Sitta R, Puren A. Randomized, controlled intervention trial of male circumcision for reduction of HIV infection risk: the ANRS 1265 trial. PLoS Med. 2005;e298:1112–22.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Bailey RC, Moses S, Parker CB, Agot K, Maclean I, Krieger JN, Williams CF, Campbell RT, Ndinya-Achola JO. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2007;369:643–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Bailey RC, Moses S, Parker CB, Agot K, Maclean I, Krieger JN, Williams CF, Ndinya-Achola JO. The protective effect of male circumcision is sustained for at least 42 months: results from the Kisumu, Kenya Trial. Paper presented at: XVII International AIDS conference, Mexico City; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  158. Weiss HA, Halperin D, Bailey RC, Hayes RJ, Schmid G, Hankins CA. Male circumcision for HIV prevention: from evidence to action? (review). AIDS. 2008;22:567–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Lane T, Raymond HF, Dladla S, Rasethe J, Struthers H, McFarland W, McIntyre J. High HIV prevalence among men who have sex with men in Soweto, South Africa: results from the Soweto Men’s Study. AIDS Behav. 2011; 15:626–34.

    Google Scholar 

  160. Millett GA, Ding H, Lauby J, Flores S, Stueve A, Bingham T, Carballo-Dieguez A, Murrill C, Liu KL, Wheeler D, Liau A, Marks G. Circumcision status and HIV infection among Black and Latino men who have sex with men in 3 US cities. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46:643–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Templeton DJ, Jin F, Mao L, Prestage GP, Donovan B, Imrie J, Kippax S, Kaldor JM, Grulich AE. Circumcision and risk of HIV infection in Australian homosexual men. AIDS. 2009;23:2347–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Millett GA, Flores SA, Marks G, Reed JB, Herbst JH. Circumcision status and risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008;300:1674–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Templeton DJ, Millett GA, Grulich AE. Male circumcision to reduce the risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2010;23:45–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Anderson J, Wilson D, Templeton DJ, Grulich A, Carter R, Kaldor J. Cost-effectiveness of adult circumcision in a resource-rich setting for HIV prevention among men who have sex with men. J Infect Dis. 2009;200:1803–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Weiss HA, Hankins CA, Dickson K. Male circumcision and risk of HIV infection in women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9:669–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Baeten JM, Donnell D, Kapiga SH, Ronald A, John-Stewart G, Inambao M, Manongi R, Vwalika B, Celum C. Male circumcision and risk of male-to-female HIV-1 transmission: a multinational prospective study in African HIV-1-serodiscordant couples. AIDS. 2010;24:737–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Hallett TB, Alsallaq RA, Baeten JM, Weiss H, Celum C, Gray R, Abu-Raddad L. Will circumcision provide even more protection from HIV to women and men? New estimates of the population impact of circumcision interventions. Sex Transm Infect. 2010;87:88–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Tobian AA, Gray RH, Quinn TC. Male circumcision for the prevention of acquisition and transmission of sexually transmitted infections: the case for neonatal circumcision. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2010;164:78–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Wawer MJ, Makumbi F, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Watya S, Nalugoda F, Buwembo D, Ssempijja V, Kiwanuka N, Moulton LH, Sewankambo NK, Reynolds SJ, Quinn TC, Opendi P, Iga B, Ridzon R, Laeyendecker O, Gray RH. Circumcision in HIV-infected men and its effect on HIV transmission to female partners in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009;374:229–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. WHO and UNAIDS announce recommendations from expert consultation on male circumcision for HIV prevention. 2007. http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/news68/en/index.html.

  171. Siegfried N, Muller M, Deeks JJ, Volmink J. Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;2:CD003362 (38 pp).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Gray RH, Li X, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Nalugoda F, Watya S, Reynolds SJ, Wawer M. The impact of male circumcision on HIV incidence and cost per infection prevented: a stochastic simulation model from Rakai, Uganda. AIDS. 2007;21:845–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Podder CN, Sharomi O, Gumel AB, Moses S. To cut or not to cut: a modeling approach for assessing the role of male circumcision in HIV control. Bull Math Biol. 2007;69:2447–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Williams BG, Lloyd-Smith JO, Gouws E, Hankins C, Getz WM, Hargrove J, de Zoysa I, Dye C. The potential impact of male circumcision on HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS Med. 2006;3(e262):1032–40.

    Google Scholar 

  175. Hankins C, Hargrove J, Williams B, Raddad LA, Auvert B, Bollinger L, Dorrington R, Ghani A, Gray R, Hallett T, Kahn JG, Lohse N, Nagelkerke N, Porco T, Schmid G, Stover J, Weiss H, Welte A, White P, White R. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in high HIV prevalence settings: what can mathematical modelling contribute to informed decision making? PLoS Med. 2009;6:e1000109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  176. Kahn JG, Marseille E, Auvert B. Cost-effectiveness of male circumcision for HIV prevention in a South African setting. PLoS Med. 2006;3(e517):2349–58.

    Google Scholar 

  177. Bollinger LA, Stover J, Musuka G, Fidzani B, Moeti T, Busang L. The cost and impact of male circumcision on HIV/AIDS in Botswana. J Int AIDS Soc. 2009;12:7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Auvert B, Kahn JG, Korenromp E, Lloyd-Smith J, Helleringer S, Taljaard D, Sitta R, Hargrove J, Williams B, Marseille E. Cost of the roll-out of male circumcision in sub-Saharan Africa. In: 7th International AIDS Society conference, Kuala Lumpur; 2007: WEAC105.

    Google Scholar 

  179. Nagelkerke NJ, Moses S, de Vlas SJ, Bailey RC. Modelling the public health impact of male circumcision for HIV prevention in high prevalence areas in Africa. BMC Infect Dis. 2007;7:16(15 pages).

    Google Scholar 

  180. Auvert B, Marseille E, Korenromp EL, Lloyd-Smith J, Sitta R, Taljaard D, Pretorius C, Williams B, Kahn JG. Estimating the resources needed and savings anticipated from roll-out of adult male circumcision in Sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS One. 2008;3:e2679 (8 pages).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Londish GJ, Murray JM. Significant reduction in HIV prevalence according to male circumcision intervention in sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Epidemiol. 2008;37:1246–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Moses S. Male circumcision: a new approach to reducing HIV transmission. Can Med Assoc J. 2009;181:E134–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  183. White RG, Glynn JR, Orroth KK, Freeman EE, Bakker R, Weiss HA, Kumaranayake L, Habbema JD, Buvé A, Hayes RJ. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in sub-Saharan Africa: who, what and when? AIDS. 2008;22:1841–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Gray RH, Wawer MJ, Kigozi G, Serwadda D. Commentary: disease modelling to inform policy on male circumcision for HIV prevention. Int J Epidemiol. 2008;37:1253–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Uthman OA, Popoola TA, Uthman MM, Aremu O. Economic evaluations of adult male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2010;5:e9628 (7 pages).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Binagwaho A, Pegurri E, Muita J, Bertozzi S. Male circumcision at different ages in Rwanda: a cost-effectiveness study. PLoS Med. 2010;7:e1000211 (10 pages).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Sansom SL, Prabhu VS, Hutchinson AB, An Q, Hall HI, Shrestha RK, Lasry A, Taylor AW. Cost-effectiveness of newborn circumcision in reducing lifetime HIV risk among U.S. males. PLoS One. 2010;5:e8723 (8 pages).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Smith DK, Taylor A, Kilmarx PH, Sullivan P, Warner L, Kamb M, Bock N, Kohmescher B, Mastro TD. Male circumcision in the United States for the prevention of HIV infection and other adverse health outcomes: report from a CDC consultation. Public Health Rep. 2010;125 Suppl 1:72–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Benatar M, Benatar D. Between prophylaxis and child abuse: the ethics of neonatal male circumcision. Am J Bioeth. 2003;3:35–48.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Lie RK, Emanuel EJ, Grady C. Circumcision and HIV prevention research: an ethical analysis. Lancet. 2006;368:522–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. UNAIDS. Safe, voluntary, informed male circumcision and comprehensive HIV prevention programming: guidance for decision-makers on human rights, ethical & legal considerations. 2008. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/JC1552_Circumcision_en.pdf [accessed Jan 4, 2011].

  192. Clark PA, Eisenman J, Szapor S. Mandatory neonatal male circumcision in Sub-Saharan Africa: medical and ethical analysis. Med Sci Monit. 2007;12:RA205–13.

    Google Scholar 

  193. Hargrove J. Migration, mines and mores: the HIV epidemic in Southern Africa. S Afr J Sci. 2008;104:53–61.

    Google Scholar 

  194. Szabo R, Short RV. How does male circumcision protect against HIV infection? Br Med J. 2000;320:1592–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. McCoombe SG, Short RV. Potential HIV-1 target cells in the human penis. AIDS. 2006;20:1491–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Patterson BK, Landy A, Siegel JN, Flener Z, Pessis D, Chaviano A, Bailey RC. Susceptibility to human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection of human foreskin and cervical tissue grown in explant culture. Am J Pathol. 2002;161:867–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Ganor Y, Zhou Z, Tudor D, Schmitt A, Vacher-Lavenu MC, Gibault L, Thiounn N, Tomasini J, Wolf JP, Bomsel M. Within 1 h, HIV-1 uses viral synapses to enter efficiently the inner, but not outer, foreskin mucosa and engages Langerhans-T cell conjugates. Mucosal Immunol. 2010;3:506–22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Turville SG, Cameron PU, Handley A, Lin G, Pohlmann S, Doms RW, Cunningham AL. Diversity of receptors binding HIV on dendritic cell subsets. Nat Immunol. 2002;3:975–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Fahrbach KM, Barry SM, Anderson MR, Hope TJ. Enhanced cellular responses and environmental sampling within inner foreskin explants: implications for the foreskin’s role in HIV transmission. Mucosal Immunol. 2010;3:410–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Boggiano C, Littman DR. HIV’s vagina travelogue. Immunity. 2007;26:145–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Hladik F, Sakchalathorn P, Ballweber L, Lentz G, Fialkow M, Eschenbach D, McElrath MJ. Initial events in establishing vaginal entry and infection by human immunodeficiency virus type-1. Immunity. 2007;26:257–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. de Witte L, Nabatov A, Pion M, Fluitsma D, de Jong MA, de Gruijl T, Piguet V, van Kooyk Y, Geijtenbeek TB. Langerin is a natural barrier to HIV-1 transmission by Langerhans cells. Nat Med. 2007;13:367–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Schwartz O. Langerhans cells lap up HIV-1. Nat Med. 2007;13:245–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Hirbod T, Bailey RC, Agot K, Moses S, Ndinya-Achola J, Murugu R, Andersson J, Nilsson J, Broliden K. Abundant expression of HIV target cells and C-type lectin receptors in the foreskin tissue of young Kenyan men. Am J Pathol. 2010;176:2798–805.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Ganor Y, Bomsel M. HIV-1 transmission in the male genital tract. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2011;65:284–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Alanis MC, Lucidi RS. Neonatal circumcision: a review of the world’s oldest and most controversial operation. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2004;59:379–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Mehta SD, Krieger JN, Agot K, Moses S, Ndinya-Achola JO, Parker C, Bailey RC. Circumcision and reduced risk of self-reported penile coital injuries: results from a randomized controlled trial in Kisumu, Kenya. J Urol. 2010;184:203–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Freeman EE, Weiss HA, Glynn JR, Cross PL, Whitworth JA, Hayes RJ. Herpes simplex virus 2 infection increases HIV acquisition in men and women: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. AIDS. 2006;20:73–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Kigozi G, Wawer M, Ssettuba A, Kagaayi J, Nalugoda F, Watya S, Mangen FW, Kiwanuka N, Bacon MC, Lutalo T, Serwadda D, Gray RH. Foreskin surface area and HIV acquisition in Rakai, Uganda (size matters). AIDS. 2009;23:2209–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Johnson KE, Sherman ME, Ssempiija V, Tobian AA, Zenilman JM, Duggan MA, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Wawer MJ, Quinn TC, Rabkin CS, Gray RH. Foreskin inflammation is associated with HIV and herpes simplex virus type-2 infections in Rakai, Uganda. AIDS. 2009;23:1807–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. O’Farrell N, Morison L, Moodley P, Pillay K, Vanmali T, Quigley M, Hayes R, Sturm AW. Association between HIV and subpreputial penile wetness in uncircumcised men in South Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43:69–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Halperin DT, Steiner MJ, Cassell MM, Green EC, Hearst N, Kirby D, Gayle HD, Cates W. The time has come for common ground on preventing sexual transmission of HIV. Lancet. 2004;364:1913–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Beckman LJ, Harvey SM, Tiersky LA. Attitudes about condoms and condom use among college students. J Am Coll Health. 1996;44:243–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Anderson JE, Wilson R, Doll L, Jones S, Barker P. Condom use and HIV risk behaviors among US adults: data from a national survey. Fam Plann Perspect. 1999;31:24–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Donovan B, Ross MW. Preventing HIV: determinants of sexual behaviour (review). Lancet. 2000;355:1897–901.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Quinn TC, Wawer MJ, Sewankambo N, Serwadda D, Li C, Wabwire-Mangen F, Meehan MO, Lutalo T, Gray RH. Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:921–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Caballero-Hoyos R, Villasenor-Sierra A. Socioeconomic strata as a predictor factor for constant condom use among adolescents (Spanish). Rev Saude Publica. 2001;35:531–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Tapia-Aguirre V, Arillo-Santillan E, Allen B, Angeles-Llerenas A, Cruz-Valdez A, Lazcano-Ponce E. Associations among condom use, sexual behavior, and knowledge about HIV/AIDS. A study of 13,293 public school students. Arch Med Res. 2004;35:334–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Ferrante P, Delbue S, Mancuso R. The manifestation of AIDS in Africa: an epidemiological overview. J Neurovirol. 2005;11 Suppl 1:50–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Kang M, Rochford A, Johnston V, Jackson J, Freedman E, Brown K, Mindel A. Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection among ‘high risk’ young people in New South Wales. Sex Health. 2006;3:253–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Sanchez T, Finlayson T, Drake A, Behel S, Cribbin M, Dinenno E, Hall T, Kramer S, Lansky A. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk, prevention, and testing behaviors – United states, national HIV behavioral surveillance system: men who have sex with men, November 2003-April 2005. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2006;55:1–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Jadack RA, Yuenger J, Ghanem KG, Zenilman J. Polymerase chain reaction detection of Y-chromosome sequences in vaginal fluid of women accessing a sexually transmitted disease clinic. Sex Transm Dis. 2006;33:22–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Yahya-Malima KI, Matee MI, Evjen-Olsen B, Fylkesnes K. High potential of escalating HIV transmission in a low prevalence setting in rural Tanzania. BMC Public Health. 2007;7:103 (10 pages).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Karim SSA, Karim QA. AIDS research must link to local policy. Nature. 2010;463:733–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Slaymaker E. A critique of international indicators of sexual risk behaviour. Sex Transm Infect. 2004;80 Suppl 2:ii13–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Lopman B, Nyamukapa C, Mushati P, Mupambireyi Z, Mason P, Garnett GP, Gregson S. HIV incidence in 3 years of follow-up of a Zimbabwe cohort – 1998–2000 to 2001–03: contributions of proximate and underlying determinants to transmission. Int J Epidemiol. 2008;37:88–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Wamai RG, Weiss HA, Hankins C, Agot K, Karim QA, Shisana O, Bailey RC, Betukumesu B, Bongaarts J, Bowa K, Cash R, Cates W, Diallo MO, Dludlu S, Geffen N, Heywood M, Jackson H, Kayembe PK, Kapiga S, Kebaabetswe P, Kintaudi L, Klausner JD, Leclerc-Madlala S, Mabuza K, Makhubele MB, Miceni K, Morris BJ, de Moya A, Ncala J, Ntaganira I, Nyamucherera OF, Otolorin EO, Pape JW, Phiri M, Rees H, Ruiz M, Sanchez J, Sawires S, Seloilwe ES, Serwadda DM, Setswe G, Sewankambo N, Simelane D, Venter F, Wilson D, Woelk G, Zungu N, Halperin DT. Male circumcision is an efficacious, lasting and cost-effective strategy for combating HIV in high-prevalence AIDS epidemics: time to move beyond debating the science. Future HIV Ther. 2008;2:399–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  228. Kalichman SC. Neonatal circumcision for HIV prevention: cost, culture, and behavioral considerations. PLoS Med. 2010;7:e1000219 (2 pages).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Plaut A, Kohn-Speyer AC. The carcinogenic action of smegma. Science. 1947;105:391–2.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Peto J. Cancer epidemiology in the last century and the next decade. Nature. 2001;411:390–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Walboomers J, Meijer C. Do HPV-negative cervical carcinomas exist? J Pathol. 1997;181:253–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Walboomers JM, Jacobs MV, Manos MM, Bosch FX, Kummer JA, Shah KV, Snijders PJ, Peto J, Meijer CJ, Munoz N. Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer. J Pathol. 1999;189:12–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Barrasso R, De Brux J, Croissant O, Orth G. High prevalence of papillomavirus associated penile intraepithelial neoplasia in sexual partners of women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:916–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Winer RL, Hughes JP, Feng Q, O’Reilly S, Kiviat NB, Holmes KK, Koutsky LA. Condom use and the risk of genital human papillomavirus infection in young women. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:2645–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Drain PK, Halperin DT, Hughes JP, Klausner JD, Bailey RC. Male circumcision, religion, and infectious diseases: an ecologic analysis of 118 developing countries. BMC Infect Dis. 2006;6:172 (10 pages).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Garland SM, Hernandez-Avila M, Wheeler CM, Perez G, Harper DM, Leodolter S, Tang GW, Ferris DG, Steben M, Bryan J, Taddeo FJ, Railkar R, Esser MT, Sings HL, Nelson M, Boslego J, Sattler C, Barr E, Koutsky LA. Quadrivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus to prevent anogenital diseases. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1928–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. de Kok IMCM, van Ballegooijen M, Habbem JDF. Cost-effectiveness analysis of human papillomavirus vaccination in the Netherlands. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009;101:1083–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Morris BJ, Rose BR. Cervical screening in the 21st century: the case for human papillomavirus testing of self-collected specimens. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2007;45:577–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Lawson JS, Gunzburg WH, Whitaker NJ. Viruses and human breast cancer. Future Microbiol. 2006;1:33–51.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Amarante MK, Watanabe MA. The possible involvement of virus in breast cancer. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2009;135:329–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Hennig EM, Suo Z, Thoresen S, Holm R, Kvinnsland S, Nesland JM. Human papillomavirus 16 in breast cancer of women treated for high grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN III). Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1999;53:121–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Widschwendter A, Brunhuber T, Wiedemair A, Mueller-Holzner E, Marth C. Detection of human papillomavirus DNA in breast cancer of patients with cervical cancer history. J Clin Virol. 2004;31:292–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Kan CY, Iacopetta BJ, Lawson JS, Whitaker NJ. Identification of human papillomavirus DNA gene sequences in human breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 2005;93:946–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Lawson JS, Kan CY, Iacopetta BJ, Whitaker NJ. Are some breast cancers sexually transmitted? Br J Cancer. 2006;95:1708.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Tseng CJ, Pao CC, Lin JD, Soong YK, Hong JH, Hsueh S. Detection of human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 mRNA in peripheral blood of advanced cervical cancer patients and its association with prognosis. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:1391–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Chen AC, Keleher A, Kedda MA, Spurdle AB, McMillan NA, Antonsson A. Human papillomavirus DNA detected in peripheral blood samples from healthy Australian male blood donors. J Med Virol. 2009;81:1792–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Cherpes TL, Meyne LA, Krohn MA, Hiller SL. Risk factors for infection with herpes simplex virus type 2: role of smoking, douching, uncircumcised males, and vaginal flora. Sex Transm Dis. 2003;30:405–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Castellsague X, Peeling RW, Franceschi S, de Sanjose S, Smith JS, Albero G, Diaz M, Herrero R, Munoz N, Bosch FX. Chlamydia trachomatis infection in female partners of circumcised and uncircumcised adult men. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;162:907–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Turner AN, Morrison CS, Padian NS, Kaufman JS, Behets FM, Salata RA, Mmiro FA, Chipato T, Celentano DD, Rugpao S, Miller WC. Male circumcision and women’s risk of incident chlamydial, gonococcal, and trichomonal infections. Sex Transm Dis. 2008;35:689–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. Fethers KA, Fairley CK, Hocking JS, Gurrin LC, Bradshaw CS. Sexual risk factors and bacterial vaginosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:1426–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Nam KH, Kim YT, Kim SR, Kim SW, Kim JW, Lee MK, Nam EJ, Jung YW. Association between bacterial vaginosis and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. J Gynecol Oncol. 2009;20:39–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  252. Cherpes TL, Hillier SL, Meyn LA, Busch JL, Krohn MA. A delicate balance: risk factors for acquisition of bacterial vaginosis include sexual activity, absence of hydrogen peroxide-producing lactobacilli, black race, and positive herpes simplex virus type 2 serology. Sex Transm Dis. 2008;35:78–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  253. Zenilman JM, Fresia A, Berger B, McCormack WM. Bacterial vaginosis is not associated with circumcision status of the current male partner. Sex Transm Infect. 1999;75:347–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Schwebke JR, Desmond R. Risk factors for bacterial vaginosis in women at high risk for sexually transmitted diseases. Sex Transm Dis. 2005;32:654–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. Verstraelen H, Verhelst R, Vaneechoutte M, Temmerman M. The epidemiology of bacterial vaginosis in relation to sexual behaviour. BMC Infect Dis. 2010;10:81 (11 pages).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. McIver CJ, Rismanto N, Smith C, Naing ZW, Rayner B, Lusk MJ, Konecny P, White PA, Rawlinson WD. Multiplex PCR testing detection of higher-than-expected rates of cervical mycoplasma, ureaplasma, and trichomonas and viral agent infections in sexually active Australian women. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47:1358–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  257. Burger R, Guthrie T. Why circumcision? Pediatrics. 1974;54:362–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. Rhodin JAG. Histology. London: Oxford University Press; 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  259. Masters WH, Johnson VE. Human sexual response. Boston: Little Brown; 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  260. Laumann EO, Maal CM, Zuckerman EW. Circumcision in the United States. Prevalence, prophyactic effects, and sexual practice. J Am Med Assoc. 1997;277:1052–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Morris BJ. Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health (Critique of Richters et al. Int J STD AIDS 2006;17:547–554). Int J STD AIDS. 2007;18:69–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  262. Morris BJ, Wodak A. Circumcision survey misleading. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2010;34:636–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  263. Collins S, Upshaw J, Rutchik S, Ohannessian C, Ortenberg J, Albertsen P. Effects of circumcision on male sexual function: debunking a myth? J Urol. 2002;167:2111–2.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  264. Fink KS, Carson CC, de Vellis RF. Adult circumcision outcomes study: effect on erectile function, penile sensitivity, sexual activity and satisfaction. J Urol. 2002;167:2113–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  265. Senkul T, Iseri C, Sen B, Karademir K, Saracoglu F, Erden D. Circumcision in adults: effect on sexual function. Urology. 2004;63:155–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Bleustein CB, Fogarty JD, Eckholdt H, Arezzo JC, Melman A. Effect of neonatal circumcision on penile neurological sensation. Urology. 2005;65:773–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Masood S, Patel HRH, Himpson RC, Palmer JH, Mufti GR, Sheriff MKM. Penile sensitivity and sexual satisfaction after circumcision: are we informing men correctly? Urol Int. 2005;75:62–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Waldinger MD, Quinn P, Dilleen M, Mundayat R, Schweitzer DH, Boolell M. A multinational population survey of intravaginal ejaculation latency time. J Sex Med. 2005;2:492–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  269. Waldinger MD, McIntosh J, Schweitzer DH. A five-nation survey to assess the distribution of the ­intravaginal ejaculatory latency time among the general male population. J Sex Med. 2009;6:2888–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  270. Aydur E, Gungor S, Ceyhan ST, Taiimaz L, Baser I. Effects of childhood circumcision age on adult male sexual functions. Int J Impot Res. 2007;19:424–31.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. Kigozi G, Watya S, Polis CB, Buwembo D, Kiggundu V, Wawer MJ, Serwadda D, Nalugoda F, Kiwanuka N, Bacon MC, Ssempijja V, Makumbi F, Gray RH. The effect of male circumcision on sexual satisfaction and function, results from a randomized trial of male circumcision for human immunodeficiency virus prevention, Rakai, Uganda. BJU Int. 2008;101:65–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  272. Krieger JN, Mehta SD, Bailey RC, Agot K, Ndinya-Achola JO, Parker C, Moses S. Adult male circumcision: effects on sexual function and sexual satisfaction in Kisumu, Kenya. J Sex Med. 2008;5:2610–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  273. Senol MG, Sen B, Karademir K, Sen H, Saraçoğlu M. The effect of male circumcision on pudendal evoked potentials and sexual satisfaction. Acta Neurol Belg. 2008;108:90–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  274. Hosseini SR, Khazaeli MH, Atharikia D. Role of postcircumcision mucosal cuff length in lifelong premature ejaculation: a pilot study. J Sex Med. 2008;5:206–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Son H, Song SH, Kim SW, Paick JS. Self-reported premature ejaculation prevalence and characteristics in Korean young males: community-based data from an internet survey. J Androl. 2010;31:540–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  276. Sorrells ML, Snyder JL, Reiss MD, Eden C, Milos MF, Wilcox N, Van Howe RS. Fine-touch pressure thresholds in the adult penis. BJU Int. 2007;99:864–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  277. Waskett JH, Morris BJ. Fine-touch pressure thresholds in the adult penis. (Critique of Sorrells ML, et al. BJU Int 2007;99:864–869). BJU Int. 2007;99:1551–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. Payne K, Thaler L, Kukkonen T, Carrier S, Binik Y. Sensation and sexual arousal in circumcised and uncircumcised men. J Sex Med. 2007;4:667–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. Williamson ML, Williamson PS. Women’s preferences for penile circumcision in sexual partners. J Sex Educ Ther. 1988;14:8–12.

    Google Scholar 

  280. Circumcision BJ. What you think. Aust Forum. 1989;2(11):10–29.

    Google Scholar 

  281. Badger J. The great circumcision report part 2. Aust Forum. 1989;2(12):4–13.

    Google Scholar 

  282. Kigozi G, Lukabwe I, Kagaayi J, Wawer MJ, Nantume B, Kigozi G, Nalugoda F, Kiwanuka N, Wabwire-Mangen F, Serwadda D, Ridzon R, Buwembo D, Nabukenya D, Watya S, Lutalo T, Nkale J, Gray RH. Sexual satisfaction of women partners of circumcised men in a randomized trial of male circumcision in Rakai, Uganda. BJU Int. 2009;104:1698–701.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  283. World Health Organization/UNAIDS. Male circumcision: global trends and determinants of prevalance, safety and acceptability. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241596169_eng.pdf. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008 [accessed Jan 4, 2011].

  284. O’Farrell N, Quigley M, Fox P. Association between the intact foreskin and inferior standards of male genital hygiene behaviour: a cross-sectional study. Int J STD AIDS. 2005;16:556–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. Leibowitz AA, Desmond K, Belin T. Determinants and policy implications of male circumcision in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2009;99:138–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  286. Morris BJ, Bailis SA, Waskett JH, Wiswell TE, Halperin DT. Medicaid coverage of newborn circumcision: a health parity right of the poor. Am J Public Health. 2009;99:969–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  287. Public Health Agency of Canada. What mothers say: the Canadian experiences survey. Ottawa: Public Health Agency of Canada; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  288. Xu B, Goldman H. Newborn circumcision in Victoria, Australia: reasons and parental attitudes. ANZ J Surg. 2008;78:1019–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  289. Madhivanan P, Krupp K, Chandrasekaran V, Karat SC, Reingold AL, Klausner JD. Acceptability of male circumcision among mothers with male children in Mysore, India. AIDS. 2008;22:983–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Mancuso T, Burns J. Ethical concerns in the management of pain in the neonate. Paediatr Anaesth. 2009;19:953–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  291. Committee on the Fetus and Newborn, American Academy of Pediatrics. Standards and recommendations for hospital care of newborn infants. 5th ed. Evanston: American Academy of Pediatrics; 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  292. Schoen EJ. Ed Schoen, MD on Circumcision: timely information for parents and professionals from America’s #1 expert on circumcision. Berkeley: RDR Books; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  293. Nelson CP, Dunn R, Wan J, Wei JT. The increasing incidence of newborn circumcision: data from the nationwide inpatient sample. J Urol. 2005;173:978–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  294. Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LJ. Neonatal circumcision: effects on breastfeeding and outcomes associated with breastfeeding. J Paediatr Child Health. 2008;44:44–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. Wang ML, Macklin EA, Tracy E, Nadel H, Catlin EA. Updated parental viewpoints on male neonatal circumcision in the United States. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2010;49:130–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  296. Xu F, Markowitz LE, Sternberg MR, Aral SO. Prevalence of circumcision and herpes simplex virus type 2 in men in the United States: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1999–2004. Sex Transm Dis 2007;34:479–84

    Google Scholar 

  297. Australian Paediatrics Association. Circumcision as a hygiene measure. Circumcision in the newborn period. Med J Aust. 1971;2:175.

    Google Scholar 

  298. Foetus and Newborn Committee. Circumcision in the newborn period. Can Paediatr Soc News Bull. 1975;8 Suppl:1–2.

    Google Scholar 

  299. Templeton DJ, Jin F, Prestage GP, Donovan B, Imrie J, Kippax SC, Kaldor JM, Grulich AE. Circumcision status and risk of HIV seroconversion in the HIM cohort of homosexual men in Sydney. In: 4th ­International AIDS Society conference, Sydney; 2007: WEAC103.

    Google Scholar 

  300. O’Donnell H. Circumcision incidence in Australia. 2004. http://www.cirp.org/library/statistics/Australia/ [accessed Jan 4, 2011].

  301. Teutsch D. More boys go under knife as parents opt for kind cut. Sydney Morning Herald; 2010: 31.

    Google Scholar 

  302. Thompson HC, King LR, Knox E. Report of the ad hoc task force of circumcision. Pediatrics. 1975;56:610–1.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  303. American Academy of Pediatrics. Task force on circumcision. Report of the task force on circumcision. Pediatrics. 1989;84:388–91.

    Google Scholar 

  304. Lannon CM, Bailey AGD, Fleischman AR, Kaplan GW, Shoemaker CT, Swanson JT, Coustan D. Circumcision policy statement. Pediatrics. 1999;103:686–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  305. Schoen EJ, Wiswell TE, Moses S. Reply to Carole M. Lannon and the task force on circumcision [letter]. Pediatrics. 2001;108:211.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  306. Bailis SA. Circumcision – the debate goes on. Pediatrics. 2000;105:682.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  307. Kunin SA. Circumcision – the debate goes on. Pediatrics. 2000;105:683.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  308. American Academy of Pediatrics. AAP publications retired and reaffirmed. Pediatrics. 2005;116:796.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  309. Schoen EJ. Ignoring evidence of circumcision benefits. Pediatrics. 2006;118:385–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  310. Schoen EJ. Re: circumcision – are you with us or against us? J. S. Elder J Urol 2006; 176: 1911. J Urol. 2007;178:354–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  311. Elder JS. Re: circumcision – are you with us or against us? J. S. Elder J Urol 2006; 176: 1911. J Urol. 2007;178:355.

    Google Scholar 

  312. Brady MT. Newborn circumcision: routine or not routine, that is the question. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2010;164:94–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  313. Moreno MA, Furtner F, Rivara FP. Advice for patients: male circumcision: new information about health benefits. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2010;164:104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  314. Fetus and Newborn Committee, Canadian Paediatric Society. Neonatal circumcision revisited. Can Med Assoc J. 1996;154:769–80.

    Google Scholar 

  315. Royal Australasian College of Physicians, Paediatrics & Child Health Division. Circumcision of infant males. Available at: http://www.racp.edu.au/page/policy-and-advocacy/paediatrics-and-child-health.

  316. Beasley S, Darlow B, Craig J, Mulcahy D, Smith G. Royal Australasian College of Physicians. Policy statement on circumcision. 2004. http://www.racp.edu.au/hpu/paed/circumcision/ [accessed Jan 4, 2011].

  317.  Morris BJ, Wodak AD, Mindel A, Schrieber L, Duggan KA, Dilley A, Willcourt RJ, Cooper DA. The 2010 Royal Australasian College of Physicians policy statement ‘Circumcision of infant males’ is not evidence based. Int Med J 2012: in press.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  318. British Medical Association. The law and ethics of male circumcision – guidance for doctors. 2003. http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/malecircumcision2003 [accessed Jan 4, 2011].

  319. British Medical Association. The law and ethics of male circumcision: guidance for doctors. J Med Ethics. 2004;30:259–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  320. British. British Medical Association. The law and ethics of male circumcision. Guidance for doctors. London: BMA, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  321. Hinchley G. Is infant male circumcision an abuse of the rights of the child? (head to head article). Br Med J. 2007;335:1180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  322. Patrick K. Medical aspects of male circumcision (head to head). Br Med J. 2007;335:1181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  323. Malone P, Steinbrecher H. Medical aspects of male circumcision. Br Med J. 2007;335:1206–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  324. American Urological Association. Circumcision. Available at: http://www.auanet.org/content/guidelines-and-quality-care/policy-statements/c/circumcision.cfm [accessed Jan 4, 2011].

  325. WHO and UNAIDS. Male circumcision: global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability (42 pp; 191 refs). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  326. Franco EL. Male circumcision and AIDS in Africa. Primum non nocere versus the collective good. Epidemiology. 2004;15:133–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  327. Flynn P, Havens P, Brady M, Emmanuel P, Read J, Hoyt L, Henry-Reid L, Van Dyke R, Mofenson L. Male circumcision for prevention of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. Pediatrics. 2007;119:821–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  328. Dickerman JD. Circumcision in the time of HIV: when is there enough evidence to revise the American Academy of Pediatrics’ policy on circumcision? Pediatrics. 2007;119:1006–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  329. Mor Z, Kent CK, Kohn RP, Klausner JD. Declining rates in male circumcision amidst increasing evidence of its public health benefit. PLoS One. 2007;2(9):e861 (4 pages).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  330. Rabin RC. Officials weigh circumcision to fight H.I.V. risk. New York Times. 2009 (Aug 29) Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/24/health/policy/24circumcision.html [accessed Jan 4, 2011].

  331. Short RV. Male circumcision: a scientific perspective. J Med Ethics. 2004;30:241.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  332. Morris BJ, Wodak AD, Mindel A, Schrieber L, Duggan KA, Dilly A, Willcourt RJ, Cooper DA, Lumbers ER, Russell CT, Leeder SR. Circumcision Foundation of Australia. Infant male circumcision: An evidence-based policy statement. Open J Prevent Med. 2012;2:79–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  333. Morris BJ, Waskett JH, Banerjee J, Wamai RG, Tobian AAR, Gray RH, Bailis SA, Bailey RC, Klausner JD, Willcourt RJ, Halperin DT, Wiswell TE, Mindel A. A ‘snip’ in time: what is the best age to circumcise? BMC Pediatr. 2012;12:20 (15 pages).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Medical Sciences and Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Bldg F13, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia

    Brian J. Morris Ph.D., D.Sc., B.Sc. (Hons)

  2. Australian Centre for Microscopy & Microanalysis, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia

    Guy Cox M.A., D.Phil. (Oxon)

Authors
  1. Brian J. Morris Ph.D., D.Sc., B.Sc. (Hons)
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Guy Cox M.A., D.Phil. (Oxon)
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brian J. Morris Ph.D., D.Sc., B.Sc. (Hons) .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Washington; MedicoLens.com, NE 89th St, Seattle, 98115, USA

    David A. Bolnick

  2. Hospital for Sick Children, University Avenue 555, Toronto, M5G 1X8, Canada

    Martin Koyle

  3. University of Rochester, New York, 14620, USA

    Assaf Yosha

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer-Verlag London

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Morris, B.J., Cox, G. (2012). Current Medical Evidence Supports Male Circumcision. In: Bolnick, D., Koyle, M., Yosha, A. (eds) Surgical Guide to Circumcision. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2858-8_19

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2858-8_19

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-2857-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-2858-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation