Abstract
The development and application of nanotechnology in renewable energy has opened up new ways to pursue next-generation solar cells which can deliver high efficiency at an economically viable cost [1–2]. A number of nano-photovoltaic (PV) concepts based on semiconductor nanowires have been developed or proposed in recent years, with either inorganic–organic hybrid [3–6] or all-inorganic approaches [7–11]. Among these concepts, of great importance is the use of quasi-one-dimensional nanowire/nanorod array to construct three-dimensional architectures as building blocks for solar light harvesting. For photogenerated carrier collection, the quasi-one-dimensional system structure is perhaps the optimized choice for optoelectronic devices such as solar cells and photodetectors, because it allows for maximally taking the advantages of reduced dimensionality while retaining the last and only needed conduction channel. Besides the possibility of exploring quantum effects when reaching the nanoscopic scale [9–10], even in the mesoscopic scale where the lateral size falls below the carrier diffusion length, the quasi-one-dimensional system could be superior to the bulk material, for instance, by reducing the non-radiative recombination and carrier scattering loss [12–13], through elimination of the unnecessary lateral transport and the resulting recombination loss [14–15].
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
P.V. Kamat, Meeting the clean energy demand: nanostructure architectures for solar energy conversion. J. Phys. Chem. C 111, 2834 (2007)
M. Law, L.E. Greene, J.C. Johnson, R. Saykally, P. Yang, Nanowire dye-sensitized solar cells. Nat. Mater. 4, 455 (2005)
M. Adachi, Y. Murata, J. Takao, J.T. Jiu, M. Sakamoto, F.M. Wang, Highly efficient dye-sensitized solar cells with a titania thin-film electrode composed of a network structure of single-crystal-like TiO2 nanowires made by the “oriented attachment” mechanism. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126, 14943 (2004)
J.B. Baxter, E.S. Aydil, Nanowire-based dye-sensitized solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 86 (2005)
M. Law, L.E. Greene, J.C. Johnson, R. Saykally, P.D. Yang, Nanowire dye-sensitized solar cells. Nat. Mater. 4, 455 (2005)
Y.M. Kang, N.G. Park, D. Kim, Hybrid solar cells with vertically aligned CdTe nanorods and a conjugated polymer. Appl. Phys. Lett. 86 (2005)
Q. Shen, K. Katayama, T. Sawada, M. Yamaguchi, T. Toyoda, Optical absorption, photoelectrochemical, and ultrafast carrier dynamic investigations of TiO2 electrodes composed of nanotubes and nanowires sensitized with CdSe quantum dots. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 45, 5569 (2006)
K.S. Leschkies, R. Divakar, J. Basu, E. Enache-Pommer, J.E. Boercker, C.B. Carter, U.R. Kortshagen, D.J. Norris, E.S. Aydil, Photosensitization of ZnO nanowires with CdSe quantum dots for photovoltaic devices. Nano Lett. 7, 1793 (2007)
Y. Zhang, L.-W. Wang, A. Mascarenhas, “Quantum coaxial cables” for solar energy harvesting. Nano Lett. 7, 1264 (2007)
J. Schrier, D.O. Demchenko, L.W. Wang, Optical properties of ZnO/ZnS and ZnO/ZnTe heterostructures for photovoltaic applications. Nano Lett. 7, 2377 (2007)
B.Z. Tian, X.L. Zheng, T.J. Kempa, Y. Fang, N.F. Yu, G.H. Yu, J.L. Huang, C.M. Lieber, Coaxial silicon nanowires as solar cells and nanoelectronic power sources. Nature 449, 885 (2007)
Y. Zhang, M.D. Sturge, K. Kash, B.P. van der Gaag, A.S. Gozdz, L.T. Florez, J.P. Harbison, Temperature dependence of luminescence efficiency, exciton transfer, and exciton localization in GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs quantum wires and quantum dots. Phys. Rev. B 51, 13303 (1995)
Y. Li, F. Qian, J. Xiang, C.M. Lieber, Nanowire electronic and optoelectronic devices. Mater. Today 9, 18 (2006)
Y. Zhang, J. Pern, A. Mascarenhas, W. Zhou, Searching for optimal solar-cell architectures. SPIE Newroom (2008) doi: 10.1117/2.1200811.1388
K. Wang, J.J. Chen, W.L. Zhou, Y. Zhang, Y.F. Yan, J. Pern, A. Mascarenhas, Direct growth of highly mismatched type IIZnO/ZnSe core/shell nanowire arrays on transparent conducting oxide substrates for solar cell applications. Adv. Mater. 20, 3248 (2008)
O.L. Muskens, J.G. Rivas, R.E. Algra, Epam Bakkers, A. Lagendijk, Design of light scattering in nanowire materials for photovoltaic applications. Nano Lett. 8, 2638 (2008)
U. Gangopadhyay, S.K. Dhungel, P.K. Basu, S.K. Dutta, H. Saha, J. Yi, Comparative study of different approaches of multicrystalline silicon texturing for solar cell fabrication. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 91, 285 (2007)
Y. Inomata, K. Fukui, K. Shirasawa, Surface texturing of large area multicrystalline silicon solar cells using reactive ion etching method. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 48, 237 (1997)
Y.J. Lee, D.S. Ruby, D.W. Peters, B.B. McKenzie, J.W. Hsu, ZnO nanostructures as efficient antireflection layers in solar cells. Nano Lett. 8, 1501 (2008)
M.D. Kelzenberg, S.W. Boettcher, J.A. Petykiewicz, D.B. Turner-Evans, M.C. Putnam, E.L. Warren, J.M. Spurgeon, R.M. Briggs, N.S. Lewis, H.A. Atwater, Enhanced absorption and carrier collection in Si wire arrays for photovoltaic applications. Nat. Mater. 9, 239 (2010)
G. Chen, J. Wu, Q.J. Lu, H.R.H. Gutierrez, Q. Xiong, M.E. Pellen, J.S. Petko, D.H. Werner, P.C. Eklund, Optical antenna effect in semiconducting nanowires. Nano Lett. 8, 1341 (2008)
Z.Y. Fan, H. Razavi, J.W. Do, A. Moriwaki, O. Ergen, Y.L. Chueh, P.W. Leu, J.C. Ho, T. Takahashi, L.A. Reichertz, S. Neale, K. Yu, M. Wu, J.W. Ager, A. Javey, Three-dimensional nanopillar-array photovoltaics on low-cost and flexible substrates. Nat. Mater. 8, 648 (2009)
B. Liu E.S. Aydil, Growth of oriented single-crystalline rutile TiO2 nanorods on transparent conducting substrates for dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 3985 (2009)
D. Kuang, J. Brillet, P. Chen, M. Takata, S. Uchida, H. Miura, K. Sumioka, S.M. Zakeeruddin, M. Gratzel, Application of highly ordered TiO2 nanotube arrays in flexible dye-sensitized solar cells. ACS Nano 2, 1113 (2008)
J. Wang, Z.Q. Lin, Dye-sensitized TiO2 nanotube solar cells with markedly enhanced performance via rational surface engineering. Chem. Mater. 22, 579 (2010)
W.T. Sun, Y. Yu, H.Y. Pan, X.F. Gao, Q. Chen, L.M. Peng, CdS quantum dots sensitized TiO2 nanotube-array photoelectrodes. J. Am. Chem. Soc.130, 1124 (2008)
K.S. Leschkies, R. Divakar, J. Basu, E. Enache-Pommer, J.E. Boercker, C.B. Carter, U.R. Kortshagen, D.J. Norris, E.S. Aydil, Photosensitization of ZnO nanowires with CdSe quantum dots for photovoltaic devices. Nano Lett. 7, 1793 (2007)
A.B.F. Martinson, J.W. Elam, J.T. Hupp, M.J. Pellin, ZnO nanotube based dye-sensitized solar cells ZnO nanotube based dye-sensitized solar cells. Nano Lett. 7, 2183 (2007)
P.V. Kamat, Quantum dot solar cells. Semiconductor nanocrystals as light harvesters. J. Phys. Chem. C 112, 18737 (2008)
B. Li, L.D. Wang, B.N. Kang, P. Wang, Y. Qiu, Review of recent progress in solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 90, 549 (2006)
M. Toivola, J. Halme, K. Miettunen, K. Aitola, P.D. Lund, Nanostructured dye solar cells on flexible substrates-review. Int. J. Energy Res. 33, 1145 (2009)
S. Anandan, Recent improvements and arising challenges in dye-sensitized solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 91, 843 (2007)
A.L. Roest, M.A. Verheijen, O. Wunnicke, S. Serafin, H. Wondergem, Epam Bakkers, Position-controlled epitaxial III-V nanowires on silicon. Nanotechnology 17, S271 (2006)
B. Mandl, J. Stangl, T. Martensson, A. Mikkelsen, J. Eriksson, L.S. Karlsson, G. Bauer, L. Samuelson, W. Seifert, Au-free epitaxial growth of InAs nanowires. Nano Lett. 6, 1817 (2006)
S.G. Ihn, J.I. Song, T.W. Kim, D.S. Leem, T. Lee, S.G. Lee, E.K. Koh, K. Song, Morphology- and orientation-controlled gallium arsenide nanowires on silicon substrates. Nano Lett.7, 39 (2007)
Y.B. Tang, Z.H. Chen, H.S. Song, C.S. Lee, H.T. Cong, H.M. Cheng, W.J. Zhang, I. Bello, S.T. Lee, Vertically aligned p-type single-crystalline GaN nanorod arrays on n-type Si for heterojunction photovoltaic cells. Nano Lett. 8, 4191 (2008)
W. Wei, X.Y. Bao, C. Soci, Y. Ding, Z.L. Wang, D. Wang, Direct heteroepitaxy of vertical InAs nanowires on Si substrates for broad band photovoltaics and photodetection. Nano Lett. 9, 2926 (2009)
G.E. Cirlin, A.D. Bouravleuv, I.P. Soshnikov, Y.B. Samsonenko, V.G. Dubrovskii, E.M. Arakcheeva, E.M. Tanklevskaya, P. Werner, Photovoltaic properties of p-doped GaAs nanowire arrays grown on n-type GaAs(111)B substrate. Nano Res. Lett. 5, 360 (2010)
Y.J. Hwang, A. Boukai, P.D. Yang, High density n-Si/n-TiO2 core/shell nanowire arrays with enhanced photoactivity. Nano Lett. 9, 410 (2009)
Y.B. Guo, Y.J. Zhang, H.B. Liu, S.W. Lai, Y.L. Li, Y.J. Li, W.P. Hu, S. Wang, C.M. Che, D.B. Zhu, Assembled organic/inorganic p-n junction interface and photovoltaic cell on a single nanowire. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 1, 327 (2010)
T.J. Kempa, B.Z. Tian, D.R. Kim, J.S. Hu, X.L. Zheng, C.M. Lieber, Single and tandem axial p-i-n nanowire photovoltaic devices. Nano Lett. 8, 3456 (2008)
V. Sivakov, G. Andra, A. Gawlik, A. Berger, J. Plentz, F. Falk, S.H. Christiansen, Silicon nanowire-based solar cells on glass: synthesis, optical properties, and cell parameters. Nano Lett. 9, 1549 (2009)
B.D. Yuhas, P. Yang, Nanowire-based all-oxide solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 3756 (2009)
B. Tian, X. Zheng, T.J. Kempa, Y. Fang, N. Yu, G. Yu, J. Huang, C.M. Lieber, Coaxial silicon nanowires as solar cells and nanoelectronic power sources. Nature 449, 885 (2007)
Y.J. Dong, B.Z. Tian, T.J. Kempa, C.M. Lieber, Coaxial group III-nitride nanowire photovoltaics. Nano Lett. 9, 2183 (2009)
Q.L. Bao, C.M. Li, L. Liao, H.B. Yang, W. Wang, C. Ke, Q.L. Song, H.F. Bao, T. Yu, K.P. Loh, J. Guo, Electrical transport and photovoltaic effects of core-shell CuO/C-60 nanowire heterostructure. Nanotechnology 20, 065203 (2009)
C. Colombo, M. Heiss, M. Gratzel, A.F.I. Morral, Gallium arsenide p-i-n radial structures for photovoltaic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 94 (2009)
T. Stelzner, M. Pietsch, G. Andra, F. Falk, E. Ose, S. Christiansen, Silicon nanowire-based solar cells. Nanotechnology 19, 295203 (2008)
L. Tsakalakos, J. Balch, J. Fronheiser, B.A. Korevaar, O. Sulima, J. Rand, Silicon nanowire solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 233117 (2007)
B.M. Kayes, H.A. Atwater, N.S. Lewis, Comparison of the device physics principles of planar and radial p-n junction nanorod solar cells. J. Appl. Phys. 97 (2005)
E.C. Garnett, P. Yang, Silicon nanowire radial p-n junction solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 9224 (2008)
K.Q. Peng, X. Wang, L. Li, X.L. Wu, S.T. Lee, High-performance silicon nanohole solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132, 6872 (2010)
S.E. Han, G. Chen, Optical absorption enhancement in silicon nanohole arrays for solar photovoltaics. Nano Lett. 10, 1012 (2010)
J.A. Czaban, D.A. Thompson, R.R. LaPierre, GaAs core–shell nanowires for photovoltaic applications. Nano Lett. 9, 148 (2009)
H. Goto, K. Nosaki, K. Tomioka, S. Hara, K. Hiruma, J. Motohisa, T. Fukui, Growth of core-shell InP nanowires for photovoltaic application by selective-area metal organic vapor phase epitaxy. Appl. Phys. Exp. 2 (2009)
M. Gratzel, Photoelectrochemical cells. Nature 414, 338 (2001)
C.C. Wang, L.C. Chen, T.C. Wang, Nanocrystalline TiO2 solar cells sensitized with chlorophyll and ZnSe quantum dots. J. Optoelectron. Adv. Mater. 11, 834 (2009)
P.R. Yu, K. Zhu, A.G. Norman, S. Ferrere, A.J. Frank, A.J. Nozik, Nanocrystalline TiO2 solar cells sensitized with InAs quantum dots. J. Phys. Chem. B 110, 25451 (2006)
I. Robel, V. Subramanian, M. Kuno, P.V. Kamat, Quantum dot solar cells. Harvesting light energy with CdSe nanocrystals molecularly linked to mesoscopic TiO2 films. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 2385 (2006)
W.U. Huynh, J.J. Dittmer, A.P. Alivisatos, Hybrid nanorod-polymer solar cells. Science 295, 2425 (2002)
I. Gur, N.A. Fromer, M.L. Geier, A.P. Alivisatos, Air-stable all-inorganic nanocrystal solar cells processed from solution. Science 310, 462 (2005)
S. Kim, B. Fisher, H.J. Eisler, M. Bawendi, Type-II quantum dots: CdTe/CdSe(core/shell) and CdSe/ZinTe(core/shell) heterostructures. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 11466 (2003)
S. Xu, Y. Wei, M. Kirkham, J. Liu, W. Mai, D. Davidovic, R.L. Snyder, Z.L. Wang, Patterned growth of vertically aligned ZnO nanowire arrays on inorganic substrates at low temperature without catalyst. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 14958 (2008)
J.J. Liu, M.H. Yu, W.L. Zhou, Well-aligned Mn-doped ZnO nanowires synthesized by a chemical vapor deposition method. Appl. Phys. Lett. 87, 172505 (2005)
S.S. Lin, J.I. Hong, J.H. Song, Y. Zhu, H.P. He, Z. Xu, Y.G. Wei, Y. Ding, R.L. Snyder, Z.L. Wang, Phosphorus doped Zn1-xMgxO nanowire arrays. Nano Lett. 9, 3877 (2009)
W.N. Lee, M.C. Jeong, J.M. Myoung, Fabrication and application potential of ZnO nanowires grown on GaAs(002) substrates by metal-organic chemical vapour deposition. Nanotechnology 15, 254 (2004)
Y.S. Tian, C.G. Hu, Y.F. Xiong, B.Y. Wan, C.H. Xia, X.S. He, H. Liu, ZnO pyramidal arrays: novel functionality in antireflection. J. Phys. Chem. C 114, 10265 (2010)
R. Tena-Zaera, J. Elias, C. Levy-Clement, ZnO nanowire arrays: optical scattering and sensitization to solar light. Appl. Phys. Lett. 93 (2008)
J.Y. Chen, K.W. Sun, Growth of vertically aligned ZnO nanorod arrays as antireflection layer on silicon solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 94, 930 (2010)
L. Ae, D. Kieven, J. Chen, R. Klenk, T. Rissom, Y. Tang, M.C. Lux-Steiner, ZnO nanorod arrays as an antireflective coating for Cu(In,Ga)Se-2 thin film solar cells. Prog. Photovoltaics 18, 209 (2010)
K. Wang, J.J. Chen, Z.M. Zeng, J. Tarr, W.L. Zhou, Y. Zhang, Y.F. Yan, C.S. Jiang, J. Pern, A. Mascarenhas, Synthesis and photovoltaic effect of vertically aligned ZnO/ZnS core/shell nanowire arrays. Appl. Phys. Lett. 96 (2010)
M. Law, D.J. Sirbuly, J.C. Johnson, J. Goldberger, R.J. Saykally, P.D. Yang, Nanoribbon waveguides for subwavelength photonics integration. Science 305, 1269 (2004)
C. Soci, A. Zhang, B. Xiang, S.A. Dayeh, D.P.R. Aplin, J. Park, X.Y. Bao, Y.H. Lo, D. Wang, ZnO nanowire UV photodetectors with high internal gain. Nano Lett. 7, 1003 (2007)
M.Y. Lu, J.H. Song, M.P. Lu, C.Y. Lee, L.J. Chen, Z.L. Wang, ZnO-ZnS heterojunction and ZnS nanowire arrays for electricity generation. ACS Nano 3, 357 (2009)
J. Yan, X.S. Fang, L.D. Zhang, Y. Bando, U.K. Gautam, B. Dierre, T. Sekiguchi, D. Golberg, Structure and cathodoluminescence of individual ZnS/ZnO biaxial nanobelt heterostructures. Nano Lett. 8, 2794 (2008)
X. Wu, P. Jiang, Y. Ding, W. Cai, S.S. Xie, Z.L. Wang, Mismatch strain induced formation of ZnO/ZnS heterostructured rings. Adv. Mater. 19, 2319 (2007)
H. Wang, M. Upmanyu, C.V. Ciobanu, Morphology of epitaxial core-shell nanowires. Nano Lett. 8, 4305 (2008)
J.F. Scott, T.C. Damen, W.T. Silfvast, R.C.C. Leite, L.E. Cheesman, Resonant Raman scattering in ZnS and ZnSe with the cadmium laser. Opt. Commun. 1, 397 (1970)
Y.Y. Luo, G.T. Duan, G.H. Li, Resonant Raman scattering and surface phonon modes of hollow ZnS microspheres. Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 201911 (2007)
B.B. Cao, J.J. Chen, X.J. Tang, W.L. Zhou, Growth of monoclinic WO3 nanowire array for highly sensitive NO2 detection. J. Mater. Chem. 19, 2323 (2009)
C. Soci, A. Zhang, B. Xiang, S.A. Dayeh, D.P.R. Aplin, J. Park, X.Y. Bao, Y.H. Lo, D. Wang, ZnO nanowire UV photodetectors with high internal gain. Nano Lett. 7, 1003 (2007)
J. Zhu, C.M. Hsu, Z.F. Yu, S.H. Fan, Y. Cui, Nanodome solar cells with efficient light management and self-cleaning. Nano Lett. 10, 1979 (2010)
Z.Y. Fan, D.J. Ruebusch, A.A. Rathore, R. Kapadia, O. Ergen, P.W. Leu, A. Javey, Challenges and prospects of nanopillar-based solar cells. Nano Res. 2, 829 (2009)
F. Boxberg, N. Sondergaard, H.Q. Xu, Photovoltaics with piezoelectric core-shell nanowires. Nano Lett. 10, 1108 (2010)
A.I. Hochbaum, R.K. Chen, R.D. Delgado, W.J. Liang, E.C. Garnett, M. Najarian, A. Majumdar, P.D. Yang, Enhanced thermoelectric performance of rough silicon nanowires. Nature 451, 163 (2008)
Acknowledgments
The work was supported by the DARPA Grant No. HR0011-07-1-0032, research grants from Louisiana Board of Regents Contract No. LEQSF(2008-11)-RD-B-10, and American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund PRF No. 48796-DN110.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC outside the People's Republic of China, Weilie Zhou and Zhong Lin Wang in the People's Republic of China
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Wang, K., Chen, J., Rai, S.C., Zhou, W. (2011). Three-Dimensional Photovoltaic Devices Based on Vertically Aligned Nanowire Array. In: Zhou, W., Wang, Z. (eds) Three-Dimensional Nanoarchitectures. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9822-4_16
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9822-4_16
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-9821-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-9822-4
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)