Abstract
In this chapter secrecy as a research theme will be introduced. Although secrets potentially concern us all, it is still not a mainstream topic of research. First we focus on how secrecy is defined, followed by a discussion on what people keep secret and the reason to keep secrets. Then research on the inter- and intrapersonal consequences of secrecy is discussed, with an emphasis on the negative effects for subjective well-being (SWB). It will be shown that the effects of secrecy on SWB critically depend on what facet of secrecy one is studying. It will become clear that secrecy is a multifaceted phenomenon, requiring a multidisciplinary research approach. It is concluded that research on secrecy is highly important because of the associated negative consequences for well-being, but that several important issues about secrecy are still unresolved. Future research themes are suggested.
An erratum to this chapter can be found athttp://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6953-8_20
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Afifi, W. A., & Guerrero, L. K. (2000). Motivations underlying topic avoidance in close relationships. In S. Petronio (Ed.),Balancing the secrets of private disclosures (pp. 165–180). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Bok, S. (1989).Secrets: On the ethics of concealment and revelation. New York: Vintage Books.
Bouman, T. K. (2003). Intra- and interpersonal consequences of experimentally induced concealment.Behavior Research and Therapy 41, 959–968.
Brosschot, J. F., & Thayer, J. F. (1998). Anger inhibition, cardiovascular recovery, and vagal function: a model of the link between hostility and cardiovascular disease.Annals of Behavioral Medicine,20, 326–332.
Brosschot, J. F., & Thayer, J. F. (2004). Worry, perseverative thinking and health. In I. Nyklíček, L. Temoshok, & A. Vingerhoets (Eds.),Emotional expression and health: Advances in theory, assessment and clinical applications (pp. 99–114). New York: Brunner-Routledge.
Cepeda-Benito, A., & Short, P. (1998). Self-concealment, avoidance of psychological services, and perceived likelihood of seeking professional help.Journal of Counseling Psychology,45, 58–64.
Christensen, A. J., Edwards, D. L., Wiebe, J. S., Benotsch, E. G., McKelvey, L., Andrews, M., & Lubaroff, D. M. (1996). Effect of verbal self-disclosure on natural killer cell activity: Moderating influence of cynical hostility.Psychosomatic Medicine,58, 150–155.
Christensen, A. J., & Smith, T. W. (1993). Cynical hostility and cardiovascular reactivity during self-disclosure.Psychosomatic Medicine,55, 193–202.
Cohen, S., Gottlieb, B., & Underwood, L. (2000). Social relationships and health. In L. Underwood, S. Cohen, & B. Gottlieb (Eds.),Social support measurement and interventions: A handbook for health and social scientists. New York: Oxford University Press.
Cole, S. W., Kemeny, M. E., & Taylor, S. E. (1997). Social identity and physical health: Accelerated HIV progression in rejection-sensitive gay men.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,72, 320–335.
Cole, S. W., Kemeny, M. E., Taylor, S. E., & Visscher, B. R. (1996). Elevated physical health risk among gay men who conceal their homosexual identity.Health Psychology,15, 243–251.
Cole, S. W., Kemeny, M. E., Taylor, S. E., Visscher, B. R., & Fahey, J. L. (1996). Accelerated course of human immunodeficiency virus infection in gay men who conceal their homosexuality.Psychosomatic Medicine,58, 219–231.
Cramer, K. M. (1999). Psychological antecedents to help-seeking behavior: A reanalysis using path modeling structures.Journal of Counseling Psychology,46, 381–387.
Cramer, K. M., & Lake, R. P. (1998). The Preference for Solitude Scale: Psychometric properties and factor structure.Personality and Individual Differences,24, 193–199.
Davidoff, F. (1996). Severity. The missing link between disease and illness. In F. Davidoff (Ed.),Who has seen a blood sugar? Reflections on medical education (pp. 146–151). Philadelphia: American College of Physicians.
Derogatis, L. R. (1993).Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI): Administration, scoring, and procedures manual (3rd ed.). Minneapolis: Nation Computer Systems.
DiBartolo, P. M., Li, C. Y., & Frost, R. O. (2008). How do the dimensions of perfectionism relate to mental health?Cognitive Therapy and Research,32, 401–417.
Ellenberger, H. F. (1965). The pathogenic secret and its therapeutics.Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences,2, 29–42.
Esterling, B. A., Antoni, M. H., Kumar, M., & Schneiderman, N. (1990). Emotional repression, stress disclosure responses, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen titers.Psychosomatic Medicine,52, 397–410.
Farber, B. A., & Hall, D. (2002). Disclosure to therapists: What is and is not discussed in psychotherapy.Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 359–370.
Finkenauer, C. (1998).Secrets: Types, determinants, functions, and consequences. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Belgium: University of Louvain at Louvain-la-Neuve, Louvain-la-Neuve.
Finkenauer, C., & Rimé, B. (1998). Socially shared emotional experiences vs. emotional experiences kept secret: Differential characteristics and consequences.Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,17, 295–318.
Frijns, T. (2004).Keeping secrets: Quantity, quality and consequences. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.
Frijns, T., & Finkenauer, C. (2009). Longitudinal associations between keeping a secret and psychosocial adjustment in adolescence.International Journal of Behavioral Development,33, 145–154.
Gallagher, E. N., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2008). Social support and emotional intelligence as predictors of subjective well-being.Personality and Individual Differences,44, 1551–1561.
Gesell, S. B. (1999). The roles of personality and cognitive processing in secret keeping (anxiety).Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering,60 (6-B), 2971.
Herman, B. H., & Panksepp, J. (1978). Effects of morphine and naloxone on separation distress and approach attachment: Evidence for opiate mediation of social affect.Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior,9, 213–220.
Hill, C. E., Thompson, B. J., Cogar, M. C., & Denman, D. W. (1993). Beneath the surface of long-term therapy: Therapist and client report of their own and each other’s convert processes.Journal of Counseling Psychology,40, 278–287.
Hillix, W. A., Harari, H., & Mohr, D. A. (1979). Secrets.Psychology Today,13, 71–76.
Kawamura, K. Y., & Frost, R. O. (2004). Self-concealment as a mediator in the relationship between perfectionism and psychological distress.Cognitive Therapy and Research,28, 183–191.
Kelly, A. E. (1998). Client´s secret keeping in outpatient therapy.Journal of Counseling Psychology,45, 50–57.
Kelly, A. E. (2000). Helping construct desirable identities: A self-presentational view of psychotherapy.Psychological Bulletin,126, 475–494.
Kelly, A. E. (2002).The psychology of secrets. New York: Kluwer.
Kelly, A. E., & Achter, J. A. (1995). Self-concealment and attitudes toward counseling in university students.Journal of Counseling Psychology,42, 40–46.
Kelly, A. E., & McKillop, K. J. (1996). Consequences of revealing personal secrets.Psychological Bulletin,120, 651–665.
Kelly, A. E., & Yip, J. J. (2006). Is keeping a secret or being a secretive person linked to psychological symptoms?Journal of Personality,74, 1349–1369.
Lane, J. D., & Wegner, D. M. (1995). The cognitive consequences of secrecy.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,69, 237–253.
Larson, D. G., & Chastain, R. L. (1990). Self-concealment: Conceptualization, measurement, and health implications.Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,9, 39–455.
Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model.Psychological Bulletin,107, 34–47.
Maas, J., Wismeijer, A. A. J., Aquarius, A. E., & Van Assen, M. A. L. M. (2010).The role of cognitive preoccupation in secrecy: Associations with physical and mental health. Manuscript submitted for publication.
MacDonald, G., & Leary, M. R. (2005). Why does social exclusion hurt? The relationship between social and physical pain.Psychological Bulletin,131, 202–223.
Margolis, G. J. (1974). Secrecy and identity.International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,47, 517–522.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). Further evidence for the role of psychosocial factors in depression chronicity.Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice,7, 224–227.
Norton, R., Feldman, C., & Tafoya, D. (1974). Risk parameters across types of secrets.Journal of Counseling Psychology,21, 450–454.
Olson, J. M., Barefoot, J. C., & Strickland, L. H. (1976). What the shadow knows: Person perception in a surveillance situation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,34, 583–589.
Panksepp, J. (1998).Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. London: Oxford University Press.
Pennebaker, J. W. (1989). Confession, inhibition, and disease. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.),Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 211–244). New York: Academic.
Pennebaker, J. W., Colder, M., & Sharp, L. K. (1990). Accelerating the coping process.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,58, 528–537.
Petrie, K., Booth, R., & Pennebaker, J. (1995). Disclosure of trauma and immune response to a hepatitis B vaccination program.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,63, 787–792.
Pennebaker, J. W., Hughes, C. F., & O´Heeron, R. C. (1987). The psychophysiology of confession: Linking inhibitory and psychosomatic processes.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,52, 781–793.
Ritz, T., & Dahme, B. (1996). Repression, self-concealment and rationality emotional defensiveness: The correspondence between three questionnaire measures of defensive coping.Personality and Individual Differences,20, 95–102.
Roeling, M. P., Wismeijer, A. A. J., Waringa, R. A., & Van Assen, M. A. L. M. (2010).Reasons for secrecy: exploring why people keep secrets. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Schlenker, B. R., & Weigold, M. F. (1992). Interpersonal processes involving impression regulation and management.Annual Review of Psychology,43, 133–168.
Smyth, J. M. (1998). Written emotional expression: Effect sizes, outcome types, and moderating variables.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,66, 174–184.
Swinkels, A., & Giuliano, T. A. (1995). The measurement and conceptualization of Mood Awareness: Monitoring and labeling one’s mood states.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,21, 934–949.
Ullrich, P. M., Lutgendorf, S. K., Stapleton, J., & Horowitz, M. J. (2004). Self regard and concealment of homosexuality as predictors of CD4+ cell count over time among HIV seropositive gay men.Psychology and Health,19, 183–196.
Vangelisti, A. L. (1994). Family secrets: Forms, functions, and correlates.Journal of Social and Personal Relationships,11, 113–135.
Van Heck, G. L., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2004). De helende kracht van de pen: soms voor sommigen of altijd voor iedereen? [The healing power of the pen: sometimes for some or always for everybody?]Gedrag & Gezondheid,32, 108–114.
Van-Leeson, T., Totterdell, P., & Parkinson, B. (2006). Moderating effects of mood monitoring on premenstrual dysphoria.Cognition and Emotion,20, 1236–1247.
Vittersø, J. (2001). Personality traits and subjective well-being: Emotional stability, not extraversion, is probably the most important predictor.Personality and Individual Differences,31, 903–914.
Vrij, A., Nunkoosing, K., Paterson, B., Oosterwegel, A., & Soukara, S. (2002). Characteristics of secrets and the frequency, reasons, and effects of secrets keeping and disclosure.Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology,12, 56–70.
Wallace, B. C., & Constantine, M. G. (2005). Afrocentric cultural values, psychological help-seeking attitudes, and self-concealment in African American college students.Journal of Black Psychology,31, 369–385.
Warren, C., & Laslett, B. (1977). Privacy and secrecy: A conceptual comparison.Journal of Social Issues,33, 43–51.
Wegner, D. M. (1992). You can´t always think what you want: Problems in the suppression of unwanted thoughts. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.),Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic.
Wegner, D. M. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control.Psychological Review,101, 34–52.
Wegner, D. M., & Gold, D. B. (1995). Fanning old flames: Emotional and cognitive effects of suppressing thoughts of a past relationship.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,68, 782–792.
Wegner, D. M., & Lane, J. D. (1995). From secrecy to psychopathology. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.),Emotion, disclosure, and health (pp. 25–46). Washington: American Psychological Association.
Wegner, D. M., Lane, J. D., & Dimitri, S. (1994). The allure of secret relationships.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,66, 287–300.
Wetzer, I. M. (2007).Let’s talk about it. Studies on the social sharing of emotions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Tilburg: Tilburg University.
Wismeijer, A. A. J. (2008).Self-concealment and secrecy: Assessment and associations with subjective well-being. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Tilburg: Tilburg University.
Wismeijer, A. A. J., Sijtsma, K., Van Assen, M. A. L. M., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2008). A comparative study of the dimensionality of the Self-Concealment Scale using principal components analysis and Mokken scale analysis.Journal of Personality Assessment,90, 323–334.
Wismeijer, A. A. J., & Van Assen, M. A. L. M. (2008). Do neuroticism and extraversion explain the negative effect of self-concealment on subjective well-being?Personality and Individual Differences,45, 345–349.
Wismeijer, A. A. J., Van Assen, M. A. L. M., Sijtsma, K., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2009). Is the negative association between self-concealment and subjective well-being mediated by mood awareness?Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology,28, 728–748.
Wismeijer, A. A. J., Van Assen, M. A. L. M., Sijtsma, K., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2010a).A 5-year longitudinal study of the relation between secrecy and subjective well-being: the differential roles of process and trait. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Wismeijer, A. A. J., Van Assen, M. A. L. M., Sijtsma, K., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2010b).Development and testing of the Tilburg Secrecy Scale-25 (TSS25). Manuscript submitted for publication.
Wismeijer, A. A. J., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2010).Secrets uncovered: An overview of the multidisciplinary literature on secrecy. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Yukawa, S., Tokuda, H., & Sato, J. (2007). Attachment style, self-concealment, and interpersonal distance among Japanese undergraduates.Perceptual and Motor Skills,104, 1255–1261.
Zech, E., Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (2002). Affective reactions when talking about emotional. events.Psychophysiology,39, S90.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Wismeijer, A. (2011). Secrets and Subjective Well-Being: A Clinical Oxymoron. In: Nyklíček, I., Vingerhoets, A., Zeelenberg, M. (eds) Emotion Regulation and Well-Being. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6953-8_19
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6953-8_19
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-6952-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-6953-8
eBook Packages: Behavioral ScienceBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)