Abstract
How do the experience, anticipation, and regulation of emotion influence decision making and how does it change with age? Regret is a decision-related emotion that arises when a chosen outcome is, or is believed to be, worse than a nonchosen alternative. The experience and anticipation of regret has been linked to important real-life decisions. However, previous research on regret has, to a large extent, relied on younger participants and to date little is known about how and if the experience and anticipation of regret changes over the adult lifespan. Moreover, very little research has thus far addressed the prevention and management of regret (regret regulation) in decision making and, especially, age differences in such regulation. This chapter reviews evidence suggesting that there are good reasons to expect that older and younger adults may differ in their experience, anticipation, and regulation of regret due to both motivational and cognitive changes with age.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderson, C. J. (2003) The psychology of doing nothing: Forms of decision avoidance result from reason and emotion.Psychological Bulletin,129, 139–167.
Boninger, D. S., Gleicher, F., & Stratham, A. (1994) Counterfactual thinking: From what might have been to what might be.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,67, 297–307.
Brunswik, E. (1956)Perception and the representative design of experiments. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Camille, N., Coricelli, G., Sallet, J., Pradat-Diehl, P., Duhamel, J. R., Sirigu, A. (2004) The involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex in the experience of regret.Science,304, 1167–1170.
Carstensen, L. L. (2006) The influence of a sense of time on human development.Science,312, 1913–1915.
Carstensen, L. L., Pasupathi, M., Mayr, U., & Nessleroad, J. R. (2000) Emotional experience in everyday life across the adult life span.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,79, 644–655.
Charles, S., & Carstensen, L. (2007) Emotion regulation and aging. In J. J. Gross (Ed.),Handbook of emotion regulation. New York: Guilford Press.
Clore, G. C. (1994) Why emotions are felt. In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson (Eds.),The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (pp. 103–111). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cohen, G. (1996) Memory and learning in normal aging. In R. T. Woods (Ed.),Handbook of the clinical psychology of aging (pp. 43–58). Chichester: Wiley.
Conner, T., Barrett, L. F., Bliss-Moreau, E., Lebo, K., & Kashub, C. (2003) A practical guide to experience-sampling procedures.Journal of Happiness Studies,4, 53–78.
Connolly, T., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002) Regret and decision making.Current Directions in Psychological Science,11, 212–216.
Coricelli, G., Critchley, H. D., Joffily, M., O’Doherty, J. P., Sirigu, A., & Dolan, R. J. (2005) Regret and its avoidance: A neuroimaging study of choice behavior.Nature Neuroscience,8, 1255–1262.
Ersner-Hershfield, H., Mikels, J. A., Sullivan, S., & Carstensen, L. L. (2008) Poignancy: Mixed emotional experience in the face of meaningful endings.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,94, 158–167.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001) The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions.American Psychologist,56, 218–226.
Frijda, N. H. (1986)The emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fung, H., & Carstensen, L. L. (2004) Motivational changes in response to blocked goals and foreshortened time: Testing alternatives to socioemotional selectivity theory.Psychology and Aging,19, 68–78.
Fung, H. H., & Carstensen, L. L. (2006) Goals change when life’s fragility is primed: Lessons learned from older adults, the September 11th attacks and SARS.Social Cognition,24, 248–278.
Gilovich, T., & Medvec, V. H. (1995) The experience of regret: What, when, and why.Psychological Review,102, 379–395.
Gleicher, F., Kost, K. A., Baker, S. M., Stratham, A. J., Richman, S. A., & Sherman, S. J. (1990) The role of counterfactual thinking in judgments of affect.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,16, 284–295.
Gross, J. J. (2008) Emotion regulation. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.),Handbook of emotions (3rd ed.) (pp. 497–512). New York: The Guilford Press.
Hess, T. M. (2000) Aging-related constraints and adaptations in social information processing. In U. Von Hecker, S. Dutke, & G. Sedek (Eds.),Generative mental processes and cognitive resources: Integrative research on adaptation and control (pp. 129–155). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Hess, T. M. (2006) Adaptive aspects of social cognitive functioning in adulthood: Age-related goal and knowledge influences.Social Cognition,24, 279–309.
Hogarth, R. M., Portell, M., & Cuxart, A. (2007) What risks do people perceive in everyday life? A perspective gained from the experience sampling method (ESM).Risk Analysis,27, 1427–1439.
Hogarth, R. M., Portell, M., Cuxart, A., & Kolev, G. I. (2008)Emotion and reason in everyday risk perception (2008). UPF working paper.
Kahneman, D. (1992) Reference points, anchors, norms, and mixed feelings.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,51, 296–312.
Kahneman, D., & Miller, D.T. (1986) Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives.Psychological Review,93, 136–153.
Kennedy, Q., Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L. (2004) The role of motivation in the age-related positivity effect in autobiographical memory.Psychological Science,15, 208–214.
Kryla-Lighthall, N., & Mather, M. (2009) The role of cognitive control in older adults’ emotional well-being. In V. Berngtson, D. Gans, N. Putney, & M. Silverstein (Eds.),Handbook of theories of aging (2nd ed.) (pp. 323–344). New York: Springer.
Lachman, M. E., Röcke, C., Rosnick, C., & Ryff, C. D. (2008) Realism and illusion in Americans’ temporal views of their life satisfaction: Age differences in reconstructing the past and anticipating the future.Psychological Science,19, 889–897.
Landman, J. (1993)Regret: The persistence of the possible. New York: Oxford University Press.
Larkin, G. R. S., Gibbs, S. E. B., Khanna, K., Nielsen, L., Carstensen, L. L, & Knutson, B. (2007) Anticipation of monetary gain but not loss in healthy older adults.Nature Neuroscience,10, 787–791.
Larsen, J. T., McGraw, A. P., Mellers, B. A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004) The agony of victory and thrill of defeat: Mixed emotional reactions to disappointing wins and relieving losses.Psychological Science,15, 325–330.
Lindquist, K., & Feldman Barrett, L. (2008) Emotional complexity. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.),The handbook of emotion (3rd ed.) (pp. 513–530). New York: Guilford.
Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, E. S. (2001) Risk as feelings.Psychological Bulletin,127, 267–286.
Löckenhoff, C. E., & Carstensen, L. L. (2007) Aging, emotion, and health-related decision strategies: Motivational manipulations can reduce age differences.Psychology and Aging,22, 134–146.
Luce, M. F. (1998) Choosing to avoid: Coping with negatively emotion-laden consumer decisions.Journal of Consumer Research,24, 409–423.
MacPherson, S., Phillips, L. H., & Della Sala, S. (2002) Age, executive function and social decision-making: a dorsolateral prefrontal theory of cognitive aging.Psychology and Aging,17, 598–609.
Magai, C. (2008) Long-lived emotions: A life course perspective. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.),Handbook of emotions (3rd ed.) (pp. 376–392). New York: The Guilford Press.
Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L. (2003) Aging and attentional biases for emotional faces.Psychological Science,14, 409–415.
Mather, M., & Johnson, M. K. (2000) Choice-supportive source monitoring: Do our decisions seem better to us as we age?Psychology and Aging,15, 596–606.
McMullen, M. N. (1997) Affective contrast and assimilation in counterfactual thinking.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,33, 77–100.
Mellers, B. A., & McGraw, A. P. (2001) Anticipated emotions as guides to choice.Current Directions in Psychological Science,10, 210–214.
Mellers, B. A., Schwartz, A., Ho, K., & Ritov, I. (1997) Decision affect theory: Emotional reactions to the outcomes of risky options.Psychological Science,8, 423–429.
Moor, K. A., Connelly, K. H., & Rogers, Y. (2004)A comparative study of elderly, younger, and chronically ill novice pda users. Bloomington: Indiana University.
Mroczek, D. K. (2001) Age and emotion in adulthood.Current Directions in Psychological Science,10, 87–90.
Nielsen, L., Knutson, B., & Carstensen, L. L. (2008) Affect dynamics, affective forecasting, and aging.Emotion,8, 318–330.
Peters, E. (2006) The functions of affect in the construction of preferences. In S. Lichtenstein & P. Slovic (Eds.),The construction of preference. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Peters, E., Hess, T. M., Västfjäll, D., & Auman, C. (2007) Adult age differences in dual information processes: Implications for the role of affective and deliberative processes in older adults’ decision making.Perspectives on Psychological Science,2, 1–23.
Peters, E., Västfjäll, D., Gärling, T., & Slovic, P. (2006) Affect and decision making: A “hot” topic.Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 19, 79–85.
Ready, R. E., Weinberger, M. I., & Jones, K. M. (2007) How happy have you felt lately? Two diary studies of emotion recall in older and younger adults.Cognition & Emotion,21, 728–757.
Riis, J., Loewenstein, G., Baron, J., Jepson, C., Fagerlin, A., & Ubel, P. A. (2005) Ignorance of hedonic adaptation to hemo-dialysis: A study using ecological momentary assessment.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,131, 3–9.
Roese, N. J. (1997) Counterfactual thinking.Psychological Bulletin,121, 133–148.
Roese, N. J., & Summerville, A. (2005) What we regret most … and why.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,31, 1273–1285.
Russell, J. A. (2003) Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion.Psychological Review,110, 145–172.
Salthouse, T. A. (1996) The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition.Psychological Review,103, 403–428.
Sanna, L. J. (1998) Defensive pessimism and optimism: The bitter-sweet influence of mood on performance and prefactual and counterfactual thinking.Cognition and Emotion,12, 635–665.
Timmers, E., Westerhof, G. J., & Dittmann-Kohli, F. (2005) “When looking back on my past life I regret…”: Retrospective regret in the second half of Life.Death Studies,29, 625–644.
Van Dijk, E., & Zeelenberg, M. (2005) On the psychology of “if only”: Regret and the comparison between factual and counterfactual outcomes.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,97, 152–160.
Van Dijk, E., & Zeelenberg, M. (2007) When curiosity killed regret: Avoiding or seeking the unknown in decision-making under uncertainty.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,43, 656–662.
Västfjäll, D., Friman, M., Gärling, T., & Kleiner, M. (2002) The measurement of core affect: A Swedish self-report measure.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,43, 19–31.
Västfjäll, D., & Gärling, T. (2002) Preference for regret, disappointment elation and surprise related to appraisal patterns and core affect.Göteborg Psychological Reports,32, 5.
Västfjäll, D., & Gärling, T. (in press) Preference for core affect and specific emotions.Journal of Psychology.
Västfjäll, D., Peters, E., & Johanson, B. (2009) Regret across the adult lifespan. In review.
Wrosch, C., Bauer, I., Miller, G. E., & Lupien, S. (2007) Regret intensity, diurnial cortisol secretion and physical health in older individuals: Evidence for directional effects and protective factors.Psychology and Aging,22, 319–330.
Wrosch, C., Bauer, I., & Scheier, M. F. (2005) Regret and quality of life across the adult life span: The influence of disengagement and available future goals.Psychology and Aging,20, 657–670.
Wrosch, C., & Heckhausen, J. (2002) Perceived control of life regrets: Good for young and bad for old adults.Psychology and Aging,17, 340–350.
Wurm, L. H., Labouvie-Vief, G., Aycock, J., Rebucal, K. A., & Koch, H. E. (2004) Performance in auditory and emotional Stroop tasks: A comparison of older and younger adults.Psychology and Aging,19, 523–535.
Zeelenberg, M. (1999) Anticipated regret, expected feedback and behavioral decision-making.Journal of Behavioral Decision Making,12, 93–106.
Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2007) A theory of regret regulation 1.0.Journal of Consumer Psychology,17, 3–18.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Västfjäll, D., Peters, E., Bjälkebring, P. (2011). The Experience and Regulation of Regret Across the Adult Life Span. In: Nyklíček, I., Vingerhoets, A., Zeelenberg, M. (eds) Emotion Regulation and Well-Being. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6953-8_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6953-8_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-6952-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-6953-8
eBook Packages: Behavioral ScienceBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)