Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Handbook of Genomics and the Family pp 369–405Cite as

Childhood Neuropsychiatric Risk

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

  • 916 Accesses

Part of the book series: Issues in Clinical Child Psychology ((ICCP))

Abstract

Neuropsychiatric disorders affecting children, such as attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), schizophrenia, and autism are considered familial with estimated heritability rates of 75, 78, 84, and 93%, respectively (Tsuang, Glatt, & Faraone, 2006), suggesting that genes confer the major risk susceptibility.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   229.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   449.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adityanjee, A., Aderibigbe, Y. A., Theodoridis, D., & Vieweg, V. R. (1999). Dementia praecox to schizophrenia: The first 100 years. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 53, 437–448.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alaghband-Rad, J., McKenna, K., Gordon, C. T., Albus, K. E., Hamburger, S. D., Rumsey, J. M., et al. (1995). Childhood-onset schizophrenia: The severity of premorbid course. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1273–1283.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alsobrook, I. J., Leckman, J. F., Goodman, W. K., Rasmussen, S. A., & Pauls, D. L. (1999). Segregation analysis of obsessive-compulsive disorder using symptom-based factor scores. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 88, 669–675.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1968). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2004). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.) (Text Revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amir, R. E., Sutton, V. R., & Van den Veyver, I. B. (2005). Newborn screening and prenatal diagnosis for Rett syndrome: Implications for therapy. Journal of Child Neurology, 20, 779–783.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amir, R. E., Van den Veyver, I. B., Wan, M., Tran, C. Q., Francke, U., & Zoghbi, H. Y. (1999). Rett syndrome is caused by mutations in X-linked MECP2, encoding methyl-CpG-binding protein 2. Nature Genetics, 23, 185–188.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andres, R. L., & Day, M. C. (2000). Perinatal complications associated with maternal tobacco use. Seminars in Neonatology, 5, 231–241.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anguelova, M., Benkelfat, C., & Turecki, G. (2003). A systematic review of association studies investigating genes coding for serotonin receptors and the serotonin transporter: II. Suicidal Behavior. Mol Psychiatry, 8, 646–653.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arcos-Burgos, M., Castellanos, F. X., Konecki, D., Lopera, F., Pineda, D., Palacio, J. D., et al. (2004). Pedigree disequilibrium test (PDT) replicates association and linkage between DRD4 and ADHD in multigenerational and extended pedigrees from a genetic isolate. Molecular Psychiatry, 9, 252–259.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, P. D., Rosenberg, D. R., Mundo, E., Tharmalingam, S., Kennedy, J. L., & Richter, M. A. (2004b). Association of a glutamate (NMDA) subunit receptor gene (GRIN2B) with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A preliminary study. Psychopharmacology, 174, 530–538.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, P. D., Sicard, T., Burroughs, E., Richter, M. A., & Kennedy, J. L. (2006). Glutamate transporter gene SLC1A1 associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 769–776.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, G. L., Vladutiu, C. J., Orlowski, C. C., Blakely, E. M., & DeLuca, J. (2004a). Prevalence of stimulant use for attentional dysfunction in children with phenylketonuria. Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease, 27, 137–143.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Asbury, K., Dunn, J. F., & Plomin, R. (2006). Birthweight-discordance and differences in early parenting relate to monozygotic twin differences in behaviour problems and academic achievement at age 7. Developmental Science, 9, F22–F31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Asherson, P., Brookes, K., Franke, B., Chen, W., Gill, M., Ebstein, R. P., et al. (2007). Confirmation that a specific haplotype of the dopamine transporter gene is associated with combined-type ADHD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 674–677.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aston, C., Jiang, L., & Sokolov, B. P. (2004). Microarray analysis of postmortem temporal cortex from patients with schizophrenia. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 77, 858–866.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, J. C., & Honer, W. G. (2007). The genomic era and serious mental illness: A potential application for psychiatric genetic counseling. Psychiatric Services, 58, 254–261.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Badner, J. A., & Gershon, E. S. (2002). Meta-analysis of whole-genome linkage scans of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry, 7, 405–411.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, A., Le Couteur, A., Gottesman, I., Bolton, P., Simonoff, E., Yuzda, E., et al. (1995). Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: Evidence from a British twin study. Psychological Medicine, 25, 63–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakkaloglu, B., O’Roak, B. J., Louvi, A., Gupta, A. R., Abelson, J. F., Morgan, T. M., et al. (2008). Molecular cytogenetic analysis and resequencing of contactin associated protein-like 2 in autism spectrum disorders. American Journal of Human Genetics, 82, 165–173.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, S. C., Hoogendoorn, M. L., Selten, J. P., Verduijn, W., Pearson, P. L., Sinke, R. J., et al. (2004). Neuregulin 1: Genetic support for schizophrenia subtypes. Molecular Psychiatry, 9, 1061–1063.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, S. C., van der Meulen, E. M., Buitelaar, J. K., Sandkuijl, L. A., Pauls, D. L., Monsuur, A. J., et al. (2003). A whole-genome scan in 164 Dutch sib pairs with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Suggestive evidence for linkage on chromosomes 7p and 15q. American Journal of Human Genetics, 72, 1251–1260.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bass, J. L., Corwin, M., Gozal, D., Moore, C., Nishida, H., Parker, S., et al. (2004). The effect of chronic or intermittent hypoxia on cognition in childhood: A review of the evidence. Pediatrics, 114, 805–816.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bassett, A. S. (1992). Chromosomal aberrations and schizophrenia. Autosomes. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 323–334.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben Amor, L., Grizenko, N., Schwartz, G., Lageix, P., Baron, C., Ter-Stepanian, M., et al. (2005). Perinatal complications in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and their unaffected siblings. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 30, 120–126.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergen, S. E., Gardner, C. O., & Kendler, K. S. (2007). Age-related changes in heritability of behavioral phenotypes over adolescence and young adulthood: A meta-analysis. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10, 423–433.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergmann, T. K., Bathum, L., & Brosen, K. (2001). Duplication of CYP2D6 predicts high clearance of desipramine but high clearance does not predict duplication of CYP2D6. Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 57, 123–127.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatara, V., Loudenberg, R., & Ellis, R. (2006). Association of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and gestational alcohol exposure: An exploratory study. Journal of Attention Disorders, 9, 515–522.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhutta, A. T., Cleves, M. A., Casey, P. H., Cradock, M. M., & Anand, K. J. (2002). Cognitive and behavioral outcomes of school-aged children who were born preterm: a meta-analysis. JAMA, 288, 728–737.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Keenan, K., Benjamin, J., Krifcher, B., Moore, C., et al. (1992). Further evidence for family-genetic risk factors in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Patterns of comorbidity in probands and relatives psychiatrically and pediatrically referred samples. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 728–738.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Newcorn, J., & Sprich, S. (1991). Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with conduct, depressive, anxiety, and other disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 564–577.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biesecker, B. B., & Peay, H. L. (2003). Ethical issues in psychiatric genetics research: Points to consider. Psychopharmacology, 171, 27–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bourgeron T. (2007). The possible interplay of synaptic and clock genes in autism spectrum disorders. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol, 72, 645–654.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, J. D., & Golden, C. J. (2001). Biological contributions to the presentation and understanding of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, 907–929.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braun, J. M., Kahn, R. S., Froehlich, T., Auinger, P., & Lanphear, B. P. (2006). Exposures to environmental toxicants and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in US children. Environmental Health Perspectives, 114, 1904–1909.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N., & Chilcoat, H. D. (2000). Psychiatric sequelae of low birth weight at 11 years of age. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 1005–1011.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brookes, K. J., Mill, J., Guindalini, C., Curran, S., Xu, X., Knight, J., et al. (2006b). A common haplotype of the dopamine transporter gene associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and interacting with maternal use of alcohol during pregnancy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 74–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brookes, K., Xu, X., Chen, W., Zhou, K., Neale, B., Lowe, N., et al. (2006a). The analysis of 51 genes in DSM-IV combined type attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Association signals in DRD4, DAT1 and 16 other genes. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 934–953.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A. S., Begg, M. D., Gravenstein, S., Schaefer, C. A., Wyatt, R. J., Bresnahan, M., et al. (2004). Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 774–780.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. T., Freeman, W. S., Perrin, J. M., Stein, M. T., Amler, R. W., Feldman, H. M., et al. (2001). Prevalence and assessment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in primary care settings. Pediatrics, 107, E43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A. S., & Susser, E. S. (2002). In utero infection and adult schizophrenia. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 8, 51–57.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bruno, K. J., & Hess, E. J. (2006). The alpha(2C)-adrenergic receptor mediates hyperactivity of coloboma mice, a model of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurobiological Disorders, 23, 679–688.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buxbaum, J. D., Cai, G., Chaste, P., Nygren, G., Goldsmith, J., Reichert, J., et al. (2007). Mutation screening of the PTEN gene in patients with autism spectrum disorders and macrocephaly. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 144, 484–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cantwell, D. P. (1996). Attention deficit disorder: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 978–987.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cardno, A. G., & Gottesman, I. I. (2000). Twin studies of schizophrenia: From bow-and-arrow concordances to star wars Mx and functional genomics. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 97, 12–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carey, G., & Gottsman, I. I. (1981). Twin and family studies of anxiety, phobic, and obsessive disorders. In D. Klein, & J. Rabkin (Eds.), Anxiety: New research and changing concept (pp. 117–136). New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., et al. (2003). The influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 5631.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavallini, M. C., Bertelli, S., Chiapparino, D., Riboldi, S., & Bellodi, L. (2000). Complex segregation analysis of obsessive-compulsive disorder in 141 families of eating disorder probands, with and without obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96, 384–391.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallini, M. C., Pasquale, L., Bellodi, L., & Smeraldi, E. (1999). Complex segregation analysis for obsessive compulsive disorder and related disorders. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 88, 38–43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chahrour, M., & Zoghbi, H. Y. (2007). The story of Rett syndrome: From clinic to neurobiology. Neuron, 56, 422–437.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, J., Lipska, B. K., Halim, N., Ma, Q. D., Matsumoto, M., Melhem, S., et al. (2004). Functional analysis of genetic variation in catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT): Effects on mRNA, protein, and enzyme activity in postmortem human brain. American Journal of Human Genetics, 75, 807–821.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheon, K. A., Kim, B. N., & Cho, S. C. (2007). Association of 4-repeat allele of the dopamine D4 receptor gene exon III polymorphism and response to methylphenidate treatment in Korean ADHD children. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 1377–1383.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheuk, D. K., & Wong, V. (2006). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and blood mercury level: A case-control study in chinese children. Neuropediatrics, 37, 234–240.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chou, W. H., Yan, F. X., Robbins-Weilert, D. K., Ryder, T. B., Liu, W. W., Perbost, C., et al. (2003). Comparison of two CYP2D6 genotyping methods and assessment of genotype-phenotype relationships. Clinical Chemistry, 49, 542–551.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, D. J., Shaywitz, B. A., & Johnson, W. T. (1974). Biogenic amines in autistic and atypical children. Cerebrospinal fluid measures of homovanillic acid and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 31, 845–853.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corcoran, C., Malaspina, D., & Hercher, L. (2005). Prodromal interventions for schizophrenia vulnerability: The risks of being “at risk”. Schizophrenia Research, 73, 173–184.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Couzin, J. (2008). Science and commerce. Gene tests for psychiatric risk polarize researchers. Science, 319, 274–277.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Craddock, N., Owen, M. J., & O’Donovan, M. C. (2006). The catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) gene as a candidate for psychiatric phenotypes: Evidence and lessons. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 446–458.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • da Silva, T. L., Pianca, T. G., Roman, T., Hutz, M. H., Faraone, S. V., Schmitz, M., et al. (2008). Adrenergic A2A receptor gene and response to methylphenidate in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-predominantly inattentive type. Journal of Neural Transmission, 115, 341–345.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, K. L., Stewart, D. G., Friedman, J. I., Buchsbaum, M., Harvey, P. D., Hof, P. R., et al. (2003). White matter changes in schizophrenia: Evidence for myelin-related dysfunction. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 443–456.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Day, N. L., Richardson, G. A., Goldschmidt, L., & Cornelius, M. D. (2000). Effects of prenatal tobacco exposure on preschoolers’ behavior. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 21, 180–188.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Leon, J., Armstrong, S. C., & Cozza, K. L. (2006). Clinical guidelines for psychiatrists for the use of pharmacogenetic testing for CYP450 2D6 and CYP450 2C19. Psychosomatics, 47, 75–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeLisi, L. E., & Bertisch, H. (2006). A preliminary comparison of the hopes of researchers, clinicians, and families for the future ethical use of genetic findings on schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 141B, 110–115.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeLisi, L. E., Friedrich, U., Wahlstrom, J., Boccio-Smith, A., Forsman, A., Eklund, K., et al. (1994). Schizophrenia and sex chromosome anomalies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 495–505.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • del Olmo, E., Lopez-Gimenez, J. F., Vilaro, M. T., Mengod, G., Palacios, J. M., & Pazos, A. (1998). Early localization of mRNA coding for 5-HT1A receptors in human brain during development. Brain Research: Molecular Brain Research, 60, 123–126.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delorme, R., Krebs, M. O., Chabane, N., Roy, I., Millet, B., Mouren-Simeoni, M. C., et al. (2004). Frequency and transmission of glutamate receptors GRIK2 and GRIK3 polymorphisms in patients with obsessive compulsive disorder. Neuroreport, 15, 699–702.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeMille, M. M., Kidd, J. R., Ruggeri, V., Palmatier, M. A., Goldman, D., Odunsi, A., et al. (2002). Population variation in linkage disequilibrium across the COMT gene considering promoter region and coding region variation. Human Genetics, 111, 521–537.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deupree, J. D., Smith, S. D., Kratochvil, C. J., Bohac, D., Ellis, C. R., Polaha, J., et al. (2006). Possible involvement of alpha-2A adrenergic receptors in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Radioligand binding and polymorphism studies. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 141, 877–884.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz-Asper, C. M., Goldberg, T. E., Kolachana, B. S., Straub, R. E., Egan, M. F., & Weinberger, D. R. (2008). Genetic variation in catechol-O-methyltransferase: Effects on working memory in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and healthy controls. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 72–79.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M., Viken, R. J., Kaprio, J., Pulkkinen, L., & Rose, R. J. (2005). Understanding the covariation among childhood externalizing symptoms: Genetic and environmental influences on conduct disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 219–229.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, S., Matschinger, H., & Angermeyer, M. C. (2006). The relationship between biogenetic causal explanations and social distance toward people with mental disorders: Results from a population survey in Germany. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 52, 166–174.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dlugos, A., Freitag, C., Hohoff, C., McDonald, J., Cook, E. H., Deckert, J., et al. (2007). Norepinephrine transporter gene variation modulates acute response to D-amphetamine. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 1296–1305.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Durand, C. M., Betancur, C., Boeckers, T. M., Bockmann, J., Chaste, P., Fauchereau, F., et al. (2007). Mutations in the gene encoding the synaptic scaffolding protein SHANK3 are associated with autism spectrum disorders. Nature Genetics, 39, 25–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egan, M. F., Goldberg, T. E., Kolachana, B. S., Callicott, J. H., Mazzanti, C. M., Straub, R. E., et al. (2001). Effect of COMT Val108/158 Met genotype on frontal lobe function and risk for schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 98, 6917–6922.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eichler, E. E. (2006). Widening the spectrum of human genetic variation. Nature Genetics, 38, 9–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elia, J., Gai, X., Xie, H. M., Perin, J. C., Geiger, E., Glessner, J. T., et al. (2009). Rare Structural Variants found in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder are Preferentially Associated with Neurodevelopmental Genes. Molecular Psychiatry. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19546859?dopt=Citation

  • Emanuel, B. S., & Shaikh, T. H. (2001). Segmental duplications: An ‘expanding’ role in genomic instability and disease. Nature Reviews Genetics, 2, 791–800.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falls, D. L. (2003). Neuregulins: Functions, forms, and signaling strategies. Experimental Cell Research, 284, 14–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fan, X., & Hess, E. J. (2007). D2-like dopamine receptors mediate the response to amphetamine in a mouse model of ADHD. Neurobiology of Disease, 26, 201–211.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fan, J. B., Zhang, C. S., Gu, N. F., Li, X. W., Sun, W. W., Wang, H. Y., et al. (2005). Catechol-O-methyltransferase gene Val/Met functional polymorphism and risk of schizophrenia: A large-scale association study plus meta-analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 139–144.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Chen, W. J., Milberger, S., Warburton, R., & Tsuang, M. T. (1995). Genetic heterogeneity in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Gender, psychiatric comorbidity, and maternal ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 334–345.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Jetton, J. G., & Tsuang, M. T. (1997). Attention deficit disorder and conduct disorder: Longitudinal evidence for a familial subtype. Psychological Medicine, 27, 291–300.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Keenan, K., & Tsuang, M. T. (1991). A family-genetic study of girls with DSM-III attention deficit disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 112–117.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Mennin, D., Gershon, J., & Tsuang, M. T. (1996). A prospective four-year follow-up study of children at risk for ADHD: psychiatric, neuropsychological and psychosocial outcome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 35, 1449–1459.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., & Milberger, S. (1994). An exploratory study of ADHD among second-degree relatives of ADHD children. Biological Psychiatry, 35, 398–402.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Perlis, R. H., Doyle, A. E., Smoller, J. W., Goralnick, J. J., Holmgren, M. A., et al. (2005). Molecular genetics of ADHD. Biol Psychiatry, 57, 1313–1323.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, M., Barkley, R. A., Smallish, L., & Fletcher, K. (2002). Young adult follow-up of hyperactive children: Self-reported psychiatric disorders, comorbidity, and the role of childhood conduct problems and teen CD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 463–475.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flockhart, D. A., & Oesterheld, J. R. (2000). Cytochrome P450-mediated drug interactions. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am, 9, 43–76.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foley, H. A., Carlton, C. O., & Howell, R. J. (1996). The relationship of ADHD and conduct disorder to juvenile delinquency: legal implications. Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law, 24, 333–345.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folstein, S., & Rutter, M. (1977). Infantile autism: A genetic study of 21 twin pairs. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 18, 297–321.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fombonne, E. (2003). Epidemiological surveys of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders: An update. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33, 365–382.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fombonne, E. (2008). Thimerosal disappears but autism remains. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 15–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freedman, L. S., Ohuchi, T., Goldstein, M., Axelrod, F., Fish, I., & Dancis, J. (1972). Changes in human serum dopamine B-hydroxylase activity with age. Nature, 236, 310–311.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freitag, C. M. (2007). The genetics of autistic disorders and its clinical relevance: A review of the literature. Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 2–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, J. I., Vrijenhoek, T., Markx, S., Janssen, I. M., van der Vliet, W. A., Faas, B. H., et al. (2008). CNTNAP2 gene dosage variation is associated with schizophrenia and epilepsy. Molecular Psychiatry, 13, 261–266.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frith, C. (1996). Neuropsychology of schizophrenia, what are the implications of intellectual and experiential abnormalities for the neurobiology of schizophrenia? British Medical Bulletin, 52, 618–826.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fryer, S. L., McGee, C. L., Matt, G. E., Riley, E. P., & Mattson, S. N. (2007). Evaluation of psychopathological conditions in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Pediatrics, 119, e733–e741.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fryo, B., Settergre, G., & Sedvall, G. (1978). Release of homovanillic acid from the brains of children. Life Sciences, 17, 387–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gainetdinov, R. R., Wetsel, W. C., Jones, S. R., Levin, E. D., Jaber, M., & Caron, M. G. (1999). Role of serotonin in the paradoxical calming effect of psychostimulants on hyperactivity. Science, 283, 397–401.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, D. L., Wang, Z., Sallee, F. R., Ridel, K. R., Merhar, S., & Zhang, J. (2006). Dopamine transporter genotype influences the physiological response to medication in ADHD. Brain, 129, 2038–2046.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glatt, S. J., Faraone, S. V., & Tsuang, M. T. (2003). Association between a functional catechol O-methyltransferase gene polymorphism and schizophrenia: Meta-analysis of case-control and family-based studies. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 469–476.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., et al. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings from the National Academy of Science USA, 101, 8174–8179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottfries, C., Roos, B., & Winblad, B. (1974). Determination of 5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and homovanillic acid in brain tissue from an autopsy material. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 50, 496–507.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenfiled, B., Hechtman, L., & Weiss, G. (1988). Two subgroups of hyperactives as adults: correlations of outcome. Can J Psychiatry, 33, 505–508.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, T. A., Braff, D. L., Light, G. A., Cadenhead, K. S., Calkins, M. E., Dobie, D. J., et al. (2007). Initial heritability analyses of endophenotypic measures for schizophrenia: The consortium on the genetics of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1242–1250.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hafner, H., Maurer, K., Loffler, W., & Riecher-Rossler, A. (1993). The influence of age and sex on the onset and early course of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 80–86.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamarman, S., Fossella, J., Ulger, C., Brimacombe, M., & Dermody, J. (2004). Dopamine receptor 4 (DRD4) 7-repeat allele predicts methylphenidate dose response in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A pharmacogenetic study. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 14, 564–574.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, G. L., Fingerlin, T. E., Himle, J. A., & Boehnke, M. (2005a). Complex segregation analysis of obsessive-compulsive disorder in families with pediatric probands. Human Heredity, 60, 1–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, G. L., Fischer, D. J., Chadha, K. R., Himle, J. A., & Van Etten, M. (2005b). Familial and sporadic subtypes of early-onset Obsessive-Compulsive disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 895–900.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, G. L., Veenstra-VanderWeele, J., Cox, N. J., Boehnke, M., Himle, J. A., Curtis, G. C., et al. (2002). Genome-wide linkage analysis of families with obsessive-compulsive disorder ascertained through pediatric probands. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 114, 541–552.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, J. E., & Bolton, P. F. (1997). Annotation: Tuberous sclerosis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 603–614.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, P. J., & Weinberger, D. R. (2005). Schizophrenia genes, gene expression, and neuropathology: On the matter of their convergence. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 40–68, Image 5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hemmings, S. M., & Stein, D. J. (2006). The current status of association studies in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 29, 411–444.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hercher, L., & Bruenner, G. (2008). Living with a child at risk for psychotic illness: The experience of parents coping with 22q11 deletion syndrome: An exploratory study. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A, 146A, 2355–2360.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Academic underachievement, attention deficits, and aggression: Comorbidity and implications for intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 893–903.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hollis, C. (1995). Child and adolescent (juvenile onset) schizophrenia. A case control study of premorbid developmental impairments. British Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 489–495.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoop, J. G., Roberts, L. W., Green Hammond, K. A., & Cox, N. J. (2008). Psychiatrists’ attitudes regarding genetic testing and patient safeguards: A preliminary study. Genetic Testing, 12, 245–252.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huizink, A. C., & Mulder, E. J. (2006). Maternal smoking, drinking or cannabis use during pregnancy and neurobehavioral and cognitive functioning in human offspring. Neuroscience and Biobehavior Review, 30, 24–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hultman, C. M., Torrang, A., Tuvblad, C., Cnattingius, S., Larsson, J. O., & Lichtenstein, P. (2007). Birth weight and attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptoms in childhood and early adolescence: A prospective Swedish twin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 370–377.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iafrate, A. J., Feuk, L., Rivera, M. N., Listewnik, M. L., Donahoe, P. K., Qi, Y., et al. (2004). Detection of large-scale variation in the human genome. Nature Genetics, 36, 949–951.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Immunization Safety Review Committee. (2004). Immunization safety review: Vaccines and autism. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inouye, E. (1965). Similar and dissimilar manifestations of obsessive-compulsive neuroses in monozygotic twins. American Journal of Psychiatry, 121, 1171–1175.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • International Schizophrenia Consortium. (2008). Rare chromosomal deletions and duplications increase risk of schizophrenia. Nature, 455, 237–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain, M., Palacio, L. G., Castellanos, F. X., Palacio, J. D., Pineda, D., Restrepo, M. I., et al. (2006). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and comorbid disruptive behavior disorders: Evidence of pleiotropy and new susceptibility loci. Biological Psychiatry, 61(12), 1329–1339.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacqz-Aigrain, E., & Cresteil, T. (1992). Cytochrome P450-dependent metabolism of dextromethorphan: fetal and adult studies. Dev Pharmacol Ther, 18, 161–168.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, P. S., Martin, D., & Cantwell, D. P. (1997). Comorbidity in ADHD: Implications for research, practice, and DSM-V. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1065–1079.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joober, R., Grizenko, N., Sengupta, S., Amor, L. B., Schmitz, N., Schwartz, G., et al. (2007). Dopamine transporter 3’-UTR VNTR genotype and ADHD: A pharmaco-behavioural genetic study with methylphenidate. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 1370–1376.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, R. S., Khoury, J., Nichols, W. C., & Lanphear, B. P. (2003). Role of dopamine transporter genotype and maternal prenatal smoking in childhood hyperactive-impulsive, inattentive, and oppositional behaviors. Journal of Pediatrics, 143, 104–110.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanaan, R. A., Kim, J. S., Kaufmann, W. E., Pearlson, G. D., Barker, G. J., & McGuire, P. K. (2005). Diffusion tensor imaging in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 921–929.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbance of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karayiorgou, M., & Gogos, J. A. (1997). A turning point in schizophrenia genetics. Neuron, 19, 967–979.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karoutzou, G., Emrich, H. M., & Dietrich, D. E. (2008). The myelin-pathogenesis puzzle in schizophrenia: A literature review. Molecular Psychiatry, 13, 245–260.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Karkowski-Shuman, L., & Walsh, D. (1996). Age at onset in schizophrenia and risk of illness in relatives. Results from the Roscommon Family Study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 213–218.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., McGuire, M., Gruenberg, A. M., Spellman, M., O’Hare, A., & Walsh, D. (1993). The Roscommon Family Study. II. The risk of nonschizophrenic nonaffective psychoses in relatives. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 645–652.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kereszturi, E., Kiraly, O., Csapo, Z., Tarnok, Z., Gadoros, J., Sasvari-Szekely, M., et al. (2007). Association between the 120-bp duplication of the dopamine D4 receptor gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Genetic and molecular analyses. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 144, 231–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anguelova, M., Benkelfat, C., & Turecki, G. (2003). A systematic review of association studies investigating genes coding for serotonin receptors and the serotonin transporter: II. Suicidal Behavior. Mol Psychiatry, 8, 646–653

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khashan, A. S., Abel, K. M., McNamee, R., Pedersen, M. G., Webb, R. T., Baker, P. N., et al. (2008). Higher risk of offspring schizophrenia following antenatal maternal exposure to severe adverse life events. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 146–152.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. J., & Kim, C. H. (2006). The genetic studies of obsessive-compulsive disorder and its future directions. Yonsei Medical Journal, 47, 443–454.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirley, A., Lowe, N., Hawi, Z., Mullins, C., Daly, G., Waldman, I., et al. (2003). Association of the 480 bp DAT1 allele with methylphenidate response in a sample of Irish children with ADHD. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 121B, 50–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirley, A., Lowe, N., Mullins, C., McCarron, M., Daly, G., Waldman, I., et al. (2004). Phenotype studies of the DRD4 gene polymorphisms in ADHD: Association with oppositional defiant disorder and positive family history. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 131, 38–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirov, G., Gumus, D., Chen, W., Norton, N., Georgieva, L., Sari, M., et al. (2008). Comparative genome hybridization suggests a role for NRXN1 and APBA2 in schizophrenia. Human Molecular Genetics, 17, 458–465.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knopik, V. S., Heath, A. C., Jacob, T., Slutske, W. S., Bucholz, K. K., Madden, P. A., et al. (2006). Maternal alcohol use disorder and offspring ADHD: Disentangling genetic and environmental effects using a children-of-twins design. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1461–1471.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knopik, V. S., Sparrow, E. P., Madden, P. A., Bucholz, K. K., Hudziak, J. J., Reich, W., et al. (2005). Contributions of parental alcoholism, prenatal substance exposure, and genetic transmission to child ADHD risk: A female twin study. Psychological Medicine, 35, 625–635.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kolvin, I., Garside, R. F., & Kidd, J. S. (1971). Studies in the childhood psychoses. IV. Parental personality and attitude and childhood psychoses. British Journal of Psychiatry, 118, 403–406.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kooij, J. S., Boonstra, A. M., Vermeulen, S. H., Heister, A. G., Burger, H., Buitelaar, J. K., et al. (2007). Response to methylphenidate in adults with ADHD is associated with a polymorphism in SLC6A3 (DAT1). Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 147B(2), 201–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotimaa, A. J., Moilanen, I., Taanila, A., Ebeling, H., Smalley, S. L., McGough, J. J., et al. (2003). Maternal smoking and hyperactivity in 8-year-old children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 826–833.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, R. A., KaraMohamed, S., Sudi, J., Conrad, D. F., Brune, C., Badner, J. A., et al. (2008). Recurrent 16p11.2 microdeletions in autism. Human Molecular Genetics, 17, 628–638.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laegsgaard, M. M., & Mors, O. (2008). Psychiatric genetic testing: attitudes and intentions among future users and providers. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Gen, 147, 375–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langley, K., Rice, F., van den Bree, M. B., & Thapar, A. (2005). Maternal smoking during pregnancy as an environmental risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder behaviour. A review. Minerva Pediatrics, 57, 359–371.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laucht, M., Skowronek, M. H., Becker, K., Schmidt, M. H., Esser, G., Schulze, T. G., et al. (2007). Interacting effects of the dopamine transporter gene and psychosocial adversity on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms among 15-year-olds from a high-risk community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 585–590.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrie, S. M., & Abukmeil, S. S. (1998). Brain abnormality in schizophrenia. A systematic and quantitative review of volumetric magnetic resonance imaging studies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 110–120.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leckman, J. F., Cohen, D. J., Shaywitz, B. A., Caparulo, B. K., Heninger, G. R., & Bowers, M. B., Jr. (1980). CSF monoamine metabolites in child and adult psychiatric patients. A developmental perspective. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 677–881.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. S., Lahey, B. B., Waldman, I., Van Hulle, C. A., Rathouz, P., Pelham, W. E., et al. (2007). Association of dopamine transporter genotype with disruptive behavior disorders in an eight-year longitudinal study of children and adolescents. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 144, 310–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lehn, H., Derks, E. M., Hudziak, J. J., Heutink, P., van Beijsterveldt, T. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (2007). Attention problems and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in discordant and concordant monozygotic twins: Evidence of environmental mediators. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 83–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, T., Ball, D., Zhao, J., Murray, R. M., Liu, X., Sham, P. C., et al. (2000). Family-based linkage disequilibrium mapping using SNP marker haplotypes: Application to a potential locus for schizophrenia at chromosome 22q11. Molecular Psychiatry, 5, 77–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, T., Sham, P. C., Vallada, H., Xie, T., Tang, X., Murray, R. M., et al. (1996). Preferential transmission of the high activity allele of COMT in schizophrenia. Psychiatric Genetics, 6, 131–133.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Wang, Y., Zhou, R., Zhang, H., Yang, L., Wang, B., et al. (2006). Association between polymorphisms in serotonin 2C receptor gene and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Han Chinese subjects. Neuroscience Letters, 407, 107–111.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Wang, Y., Zhou, R., Zhang, H., Yang, L., Wang, B., et al. (2007). Association between polymorphisms in serotonin transporter gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Chinese Han subjects. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 144, 14–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linnet, K. M., Wisborg, K., Obel, C., Secher, N. J., Thomsen, P. H., Agerbo, E., et al. (2005). Smoking during pregnancy and the risk for hyperkinetic disorder in offspring. Pediatrics, 116, 462–467.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lochner, C., Seedat, S., Hemmings, S. M., Moolman-Smook, J. C., Kidd, M., & Stein, D. J. (2007). Investigating the possible effects of trauma experiences and 5-HTT on the dissociative experiences of patients with OCD using path analysis and multiple regression. Neuropsychobiology, 56, 6–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lombroso, P. J., Pauls, D. L., & Leckman, J. F. (1994). Genetic mechanisms in childhood psychiatric disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 921–938.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lott, D. C., Kim, S. J., Cook, E. H., Jr., & de Wit, H. (2005). Dopamine transporter gene associated with diminished subjective response to amphetamine. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30, 602–609.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyus, V. L. (2007). The importance of genetic counseling for individuals with schizophrenia and their relatives: Potential clients’ opinions and experiences. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 144B, 1014–1021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markowitz, J. S., & Patrick, K. S. (2001). Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic drug interactions in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 40, 753–772.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, C. R., Noor, A., Vincent, J. B., Lionel, A. C., Feuk, L., Skaug, J., et al. (2008). Structural variation of chromosomes in autism spectrum disorder. American Journal of Human Genetics, 82, 477–488.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mataix-Cols, D., Rosario-Campos, M. C., & Leckman, J. F. (2005). A multidimensional model of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 228–238.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mattson, S. N., Calarco, K. E., Chambers, C. D., & Jones, K. L. (2002). Interaction of maternal smoking and other in-pregnancy exposures: Analytic considerations. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24, 359–367.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maughan, B., Taylor, A., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2004). Prenatal smoking and early childhood conduct problems: Testing genetic and environmental explanations of the association. Archives of Genetic Psychiatry, 61, 836–843.

    Google Scholar 

  • Max, J. E., Arndt, S., Castillo, C. S., Bokura, H., Robin, D. A., Lindgren, S. D., et al. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity symptomatology after traumatic brain injury: A prospective study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 841–847.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGough, J., McCracken, J., Swanson, J., Riddle, M., Kollins, S., Greenhill, L., et al. (2006). Pharmacogenetics of methylphenidate response in preschoolers with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 1314–1322.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meira-Lima, I., Shavitt, R. G., Miguita, K., Ikenaga, E., Miguel, E. C., & Vallada, H. (2004). Association analysis of the catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT), serotonin transporter (5-HTT) and serotonin 2A receptor (5HT2A) gene polymorphisms with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 3, 75–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melke, J., Goubran Botros, H., Chaste, P., Betancur, C., Nygren, G., Anckarsater, H., et al. (2008). Abnormal melatonin synthesis in autism spectrum disorders. Molecular Psychiatry, 13, 90–98.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michelson, D., Allen, A. J., Busner, J., Casat, C., Dunn, D., Kratochvil, C., et al. (2002). Once-daily atomoxetine treatment for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A randomized, placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1896–1901.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michelson, D., Read, H. A., Ruff, D. D., Witcher, J., Zhang, S., & McCracken, J. (2007). CYP2D6 and clinical response to atomoxetine in children and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 242–251.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mick, E., Biederman, J., Prince, J., Fischer, M. J., & Faraone, S. V. (2002). Impact of low birth weight on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Developmental Behavior and Pediatrics, 23, 16–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mick, E., Biederman, J., Spencer, T., Faraone, S. V., & Sklar, P. (2006). Absence of association with DAT1 polymorphism and response to methylphenidate in a sample of adults with ADHD. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 141, 890–894.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mick, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2008). Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17, 261–284.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miguel, E. C., Leckman, J. F., Rauch, S., do Rosario-Campos, M. C., Hounie, A. G., Mercadante, M. T., et al. (2005). Obsessive-compulsive disorder phenotypes: Implications for genetic studies. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 258–275.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milberger, S., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Guite, J., & Tsuang, M. T. (1997). Pregnancy, delivery and infancy complications and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Issues of gene-environment interaction. Biological Psychiatry, 41, 65–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mossner, R., Walitza, S., Geller, F., Scherag, A., Gutknecht, L., Jacob, C., et al. (2006). Transmission disequilibrium of polymorphic variants in the tryptophan hydroxylase-2 gene in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 9, 437–442.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mrazek, D. A. (2006). Incorporating pharmacogenetics into clinical practice: Reality of a new tool in psychiatry. The context of genetic testing in clinical psychiatric practice. CNS Spectrum, 11, 3–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mrazek, M., Koenig, B., Skime, M., Snyder, K., Hook, C., Black, J., III, et al. (2007). Assessing attitudes about genetic testing as a component of continuing medical education. Academic Psychiatry, 31, 447–451.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nadder, T. S., Rutter, M., Silberg, J. L., Maes, H. H., & Eaves, L. J. (2002). Genetic effects on the variation and covariation of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional-defiant disorder/conduct disorder (Odd/CD) symptomatologies across informant and occasion of measurement. Psychological Medicine, 32, 39–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neale, B. M., Lasky-Su, J., Anney, R., Franke, B., Zhou, K., Maller, J. B., et al. (2008). Genome-wide association scan of ADHD. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 147B, 1337–1344.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nestadt, G., Lan, T., Samuels, J., Riddle, M., Bienvenu, O. J., III, Liang, K. Y., et al. (2000a). Complex segregation analysis provides compelling evidence for a major gene underlying obsessive-compulsive disorder and for heterogeneity by sex. American Journal of Human Genetics, 67, 1611–1616.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nestadt, G., Samuels, J., Riddle, M., Bienvenu, O. J., III, Liang, K. Y., LaBuda, M., et al. (2000b). A family study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 358–363.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neuman, R. J., Lobos, E., Reich, W., Henderson, C. A., Sun, L. W., & Todd, R. D. (2007). Prenatal smoking exposure and dopaminergic genotypes interact to cause a severe ADHD subtype. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 1320–1328.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolson, R., Brookner, F. B., Lenane, M., Gochman, P., Ingraham, L. J., Egan, M. F., et al. (2003). Parental schizophrenia spectrum disorders in childhood-onset and adult-onset schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 490–495.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolson, R., Giedd, J. N., Lenane, M., Hamburger, S., Singaracharlu, S., Bedwell, J., et al. (1999). Clinical and neurobiological correlates of cytogenetic abnormalities in childhood-onset schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1575–1579.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolson, R., & Rapoport, J. L. (1999). Childhood-onset schizophrenia: Rare but worth studying. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 1418–1428.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Niebuhr, D. W., Millikan, A. M., Cowan, D. N., Yolken, R., Li, Y., & Weber, N. S. (2008). Selected infectious agents and risk of schizophrenia among U.S. military personnel. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 99–106.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., & Breslau, N. (2007). Prenatal smoking exposure, low birth weight, and disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 362–369.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Stavro, G., Ettenhofer, M., Hambrick, D. Z., Miller, T., & Henderson, J. M. (2005). Executive functions and ADHD in adults: evidence for selective effects on ADHD symptom domains. J Abnorm Psychol, 114, 706–717.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Callaghan, E., Gibson, T., Colohan, H. A., Buckley, P., Walshe, D. G., Larkin, C., et al. (1992). Risk of schizophrenia in adults born after obstetric complications and their association with early onset of illness: A controlled study. BMJ, 305, 1256–1259.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oesterheld, J. R. (1998). A review of developmental aspects of cytochrome P450. J Child Adolesc Psychopharm, 8, 161–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogdie, M. N., Bakker, S. C., Fisher, S. E., Francks, C., Yang, M. H., Cantor, R. M., et al. (2006). Pooled genome-wide linkage data on 424 ADHD ASPs suggests genetic heterogeneity and a common risk locus at 5p13. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 5–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogdie, M. N., Fisher, S. E., Yang, M., Ishii, J., Francks, C., Loo, S. K., et al. (2004). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Fine mapping supports linkage to 5p13, 6q12, 16p13, and 17p11. American Journal of Human Genetics, 75, 661–668.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogdie, M. N., Macphie, I. L., Minassian, S. L., Yang, M., Fisher, S. E., Francks, C., et al. (2003). A genomewide scan for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in an extended sample: Suggestive linkage on 17p11. American Journal of Human Genetics, 72, 1268–1279.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orlebeke, J. F., Knol, D. L., & Verhulst, F. C. (1999). Child behavior problems increased by maternal smoking during pregnancy. Archives of Environmental Health, 54, 15–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pantelis, C., Yucel, M., Wood, S. J., Velakoulis, D., Sun, D., Berger, G., et al. (2005). Structural brain imaging evidence for multiple pathological processes at different stages of brain development in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 31, 672–696.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patrick, K. S., Straughn, A. B., Minhinnett, R. R., Yeatts, S. D., Herrin, A. E., DeVane, C. L., et al. (2007). Influence of ethanol and gender on methylphenidate pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 81, 346–353.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pauls, D. L., Alsobrook, J. P., II, Goodman, W., Rasmussen, S., & Leckman, J. F. (1995). A family study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 76–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Philippi, A., Tores, F., Carayol, J., Rousseau, F., Letexier, M., Roschmann, E., et al. (2007). Association of autism with polymorphisms in the paired-like homeodomain transcription factor 1 (PITX1) on chromosome 5q31: A candidate gene analysis. BMC Medical Genetics, 8, 74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pigott, T. A., Zohar, J., Hill, J. L., Bernstein, S. E., Grover, G. N., Zohar-Kadouch, R. C., et al. (1991). Metergoline blocks the behavioral and neuroendocrine effects of orally administered m-chlorophenylpiperazine in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 29, 418–426.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Polanczyk, G., de Lima, M. S., Horta, B. L., Biederman, J., & Rohde, L. A. (2007a). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: A systematic review and metaregression analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 942–948.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Polanczyk, G., Zeni, C., Genro, J. P., Guimaraes, A. P., Roman, T., Hutz, M. H., et al. (2007b). Association of the adrenergic alpha2A receptor gene with methylphenidate improvement of inattentive symptoms in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 218–224.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramoz, N., Cai, G., Reichert, J. G., Silverman, J. M., & Buxbaum, J. D. (2008). An analysis of candidate autism loci on chromosome 2q24-q33: Evidence for association to the STK39 gene. American Journal of Medical Genetic Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147B, 1152–1158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, J. L., Addington, A. M., Frangou, S., & Psych, M. R. (2005). The neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: Update 2005. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 434–449.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, S. A., & Eisen, J. L. (1994). The epidemiology and differential diagnosis of obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55(Suppl ), 5–10, discussion 11–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen-Torvik, L. J., & McAlpine, D. D. (2007). Genetic screening for SSRI drug response among those with major depression: great promise and unseen perils. Depres, 24, 350–357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reddy, K. S. (2005). Cytogenetic abnormalities and fragile-X syndrome in Autism Spectrum Disorder. BMC Medical Genetics, 6, 3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richelson, E. (1997). Pharmacokinetic drug interactions of new antidepressants: A review of the effects on the metabolism of other drugs. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 72, 835–847.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riley, B. P., & McGuffin, P. (2000). Linkage and associated studies of schizophrenia. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 97, 23–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ritvo, E. R., Spence, M. A., Freman, B. J., Mason-Brothers, A., Mo, A., & Marazita, M. L. (1985). Evidence for autosomal recessive inheritance in 46 families with multiple incidences of autism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 187–192.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ritvo, E., Yuwiler, A., Geller, E., Plotkin, S., Mason, A., & Faeger, K. (1971). Maturatioal changes in blood serotonin levels and platelet counts. Biochemical Medicine, 5, 90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, A., & Bohlin, G. (2005). Are maternal smoking and stress during pregnancy related to ADHD symptoms in children? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 246–254.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roffman, J. L., Weiss, A. P., Purcell, S., Caffalette, C. A., Freudenreich, O., Henderson, D. C., et al. (2008). Contribution of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) polymorphisms to negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 42–48.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, V., Allie, S., & Wiggins, T. (2000). Increased noradrenergic activity in prefrontal cortex slices of an animal model for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder–the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Behavioural Brain Research, 117, 69–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Samuels, J., Shugart, Y. Y., Grados, M. A., Willour, V. L., Bienvenu, O. J., Greenberg, B. D., et al. (2007). Significant linkage to compulsive hoarding on chromosome 14 in families with obsessive-compulsive disorder: Results from the OCD Collaborative Genetics Study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 493–499.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, G. B., & Mendelsohn, N. J. (2008). Genetics evaluation for the etiologic diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders. Genetic Medicine, 10, 4–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sebat, J., Lakshmi, B., Malhotra, D., Troge, J., Lese-Martin, C., Walsh, T., et al. (2007). Strong association of de novo copy number mutations with autism. Science, 316, 445–449.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sebat, J., Lakshmi, B., Troge, J., Alexander, J., Young, J., Lundin, P., et al. (2004). Large-scale copy number polymorphism in the human genome. Science, 305, 525–528.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Secker-Walker, R. H., Vacek, P. M., Flynn, B. S., & Mead, P. B. (1997). Smoking in pregnancy, exhaled carbon monoxide, and birth weight. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 89, 648–653.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seifert, W. E., Jr., Foxx, J. L., & Butler, I. J. (1980). Age effect on dopamine and serotonin metabolite levels in cerebrospinal fluid. Annals Neurology, 8, 38–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selemon, L. D., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1999). The reduced neuropil hypothesis: A circuit based model of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 17–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sengupta, S. M., Grizenko, N., Schmitz, N., Schwartz, G., Ben Amor, L., Bellingham, J., et al. (2006). COMT Val108/158Met gene variant, birth weight, and conduct disorder in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 1363–1369.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, W. S., Gottesman, R. F., Greenstein, D. K., Ebens, C. L., Rapoport, J. L., & Castellanos, F. X. (2003). Monozygotic twins discordant for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Ascertainment and clinical characteristics. Jounrnal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 93–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, A. J., Hansen, S., Selzer, R. R., Cheng, Z., Regan, R., Hurst, J. A., et al. (2006). Discovery of previously unidentified genomic disorders from the duplication architecture of the human genome. Nature Genetics, 38, 1038–1042.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, B. A., Cohen, D. J., Leckman, J. F., Young, J. G., & Bowers, M. B., Jr. (1980). Ontogeny of dopamine and serotonin metabolites in the cerebrospinal fluid of children with neurological disorders. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 22, 748–754.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shevell, M., & Fombonne, E. (2006). Autism and MMR vaccination or thimerosal exposure: An urban legend? Canadian Journal of Neurological Science, 33, 339–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shifman, S., Bronstein, M., Sternfeld, M., Pisante-Shalom, A., Lev-Lehman, E., Weizman, A., et al. (2002). A highly significant association between a COMT haplotype and schizophrenia. American Journal of Human Genetics, 71, 1296–1302.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shugart, Y. Y., Samuels, J., Willour, V. L., Grados, M. A., Greenberg, B. D., Knowles, J. A., et al. (2006). Genomewide linkage scan for obsessive-compulsive disorder: Evidence for susceptibility loci on chromosomes 3q, 7p, 1q, 15q, and 6q. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 763–770.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sikora, D. M., Pettit-Kekel, K., Penfield, J., Merkens, L. S., & Steiner, R. D. (2006). The near universal presence of autism spectrum disorders in children with Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A, 140, 1511–1518.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smalley, S., Kustanovich, V., Minassian, S. L., Stone, J. L., Ogdie, M. N., McGough, J. J., et al. (2002). Genetic linkage of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder on chromosome 16p13, in a region implicated in autism. American Journal of Human Genetics, 71, 959–963.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sobti, R. C., Sharma, S., Joshi, A., Jindal, S. K., & Janmeja, A. (2003). CYP1A1 and CYP2D6 polymorphism and risk of lung cancer in a North Indian population. Biomarkers, 8, 415–428.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, T. J. (2006). ADHD and comorbidity in childhood. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(Suppl 8), 27–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, T., Heiligenstein, J. H., Biederman, J., Faries, D. E., Kratochvil, C. J., Conners, C. K., et al. (2002). Results from 2 proof-of-concept, placebo-controlled studies of atomoxetine in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 63, 1140–1147.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spielman, R. S., McGinnis, R. E., & Ewens, W. J. (1993). Transmission test for linkage disequilibrium: The insulin gene region and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). American Journal of Human Genetics, 52, 506–516.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sprich, S., Biederman, J., Crawford, M. H., Mundy, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1432–1437.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stefansson, H., Rujescu, D., Cichon, S., Pietilainen, O. P., Ingason, A., Steinberg, S., et al. (2008). Large recurrent microdeletions associated with schizophrenia. Nature, 455, 232–236.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stefansson, H., Sigurdsson, E., Steinthorsdottir, V., Bjornsdottir, S., Sigmundsson, T., Ghosh, S., et al. (2002). Neuregulin 1 and susceptibility to schizophrenia. American Journal of Human Genetics, 71, 877–892.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steffenburg, S., Gillberg, C., Hellgren, L., Andersson, L., Gillberg, I. C., Jakobsson, G., et al. (1989). A twin study of autism in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 405–416.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, M. A., Waldman, I. D., Sarampote, C. S., Seymour, K. E., Robb, A. S., Conlon, C., et al. (2005). Dopamine transporter genotype and methylphenidate dose response in children with ADHD. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30, 1374–1382.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strother, C. R. (1973). Minimal cerebral dysfunction: A historical overview. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 205, 6–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sykes, N. H., & Lamb, J. A. (2007). Autism: The quest for the genes. Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine, 9, 1–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szatmari, P., Saigal, S., Rosenbaum, P., Campbell, D., & King, S. (1990). Psychiatric disorders at five years among children with birthweights less than 1000 g: A regional perspective. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 32, 954–962.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thapar, A., Langley, K., Fowler, T., Rice, F., Turic, D., Whittinger, N., et al. (2005). Catechol o-methyltransferase gene variant and birth weight predict early-onset antisocial behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 1275–1278.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tharoor, H., Lobos, E. A., Todd, R. D., & Reiersen, A. M. (2007). Association of dopamine, serotonin, and nicotinic gene polymorphisms with methylphenidate response in ADHD. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147B, 527–530.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tierney, E., Nwokoro, N. A., Porter, F. D., Freund, L. S., Ghuman, J. K., & Kelley, R. I. (2001). Behavior phenotype in the RSH/Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 98, 191–200.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Todd, R. D., & Neuman, R. J. (2007). Gene-Environment interactions in the development of combined type ADHD: Evidence for a synapse-based model. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 144B, 971–975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tosato, S., Dazzan, P., & Collier, D. (2005). Association between the neuregulin 1 gene and schizophrenia: A systematic review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 31, 613–617.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trappe, R., Laccone, F., Cobilanschi, J., Meins, M., Huppke, P., Hanefeld, F., et al. (2001). MECP2 mutations in sporadic cases of Rett syndrome are almost exclusively of paternal origin. American Journal of Human Genetics, 68, 1093–1101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treluyer, J. M., Jacqz-Aigrain, E., Alvarez, F., & Cresteil, T. (1991). Expression of CYP2D6 in developing human liver. Eur J Biochem, 202, 583–588.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsuang, M. T., Glatt, S. J., & Faraone, S. V. (2006). The complex genetics of psychiatric disorders. In S. Marschall, M. Runge, & M. Cam Patterson (Eds.), Principles of molecular medicine (2nd ed., pp. 1184–1190). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Meulen, E. M., Bakker, S. C., Pauls, D. L., Oteman, N., Kruitwagen, C. L., Pearson, P. L., et al. (2005). High sibling correlation on methylphenidate response but no association with DAT1-10R homozygosity in Dutch sibpairs with ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 1074–1080.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vartanian, T., Fischbach, G., & Miller, R. (1999). Failure of spinal cord oligodendrocyte development in mice lacking neuregulin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 96, 731–735.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veenstra-VanderWeele, J., & Cook, E. H., Jr. (2004). Molecular genetics of autism spectrum disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 9, 819–832.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veenstra-VanderWeele, J., Kim, S. J., Gonen, D., Hanna, G. L., Leventhal, B. L., & Cook, E. H., Jr. (2001). Genomic organization of the SLC1A1/EAAC1 gene and mutation screening in early-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 6, 160–167.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verdoux, H., Geddes, J. R., Takei, N., Lawrie, S. M., Bovet, P., Eagles, J. M., et al. (1997). Obstetric complications and age at onset in schizophrenia: An international collaborative meta-analysis of individual patient data. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1220–1227.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wakschlag, L. S., Pickett, K. E., Cook, E., Jr., Benowitz, N. L., & Leventhal, B. L. (2002). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and severe antisocial behavior in offspring: A review. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 966–974.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, T., McClellan, J. M., McCarthy, S. E., Addington, A. M., Pierce, S. B., Cooper, G. M., et al. (2008). Rare structural variants disrupt multiple genes in neurodevelopmental pathways in schizophrenia. Science, 320(5875), 539–543.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wassink, T. H., Brzustowicz, L. M., Bartlett, C. W., & Szatmari, P. (2004). The search for autism disease genes. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 10, 272–283.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weickert, T. W., Goldberg, T. E., Gold, J. M., Bigelow, L. B., Egan, M. F., & Weinberger, D. R. (2000). Cognitive impairments in patients with schizophrenia displaying preserved and compromised intellect. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 907–913.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinshilboum, R. (1979). Serum dopamine-B-hydroxylase. Pharmacological Reviews, 39, 133–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, L. A., Shen, Y., Korn, J. M., Arking, D. E., Miller, D. T., Fossdal, R., et al. (2008). Association between microdeletion and microduplication at 16p11.2 and autism. New England Journal of Medicine, 358, 667–675.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens, T. E., Hahesy, A. L., Biederman, J., Bredin, E., Tanguay, S., Kwon, A., et al. (2005). Influence of parental SUD and ADHD on ADHD in their offspring: Preliminary results from a pilot-controlled family study. American Journal of Addiction, 14, 179–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willour, V. L., Yao Shugart, Y., Samuels, J., Grados, M., Cullen, B., Bienvenu, O. J., III, et al. (2004). Replication study supports evidence for linkage to 9p24 in obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Human Genetics, 75, 508–513.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winsberg, B. G., & Comings, D. E. (1999). Association of the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) with poor methylphenidate response. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1474–1477.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wonodi, I., Stine, O. C., Mitchell, B. D., Buchanan, R. W., & Thaker, G. K. (2003). Association between Val108/158 Met polymorphism of the COMT gene and schizophrenia. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 120, 47–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., Mill, J., Zhou, K., Brookes, K., Chen, C. K., & Asherson, P. (2007). Family-based association study between brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene polymorphisms and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in UK and Taiwanese samples. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 144, 83–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yan, W. L., Guan, X. Y., Green, E. D., Nicolson, R., Yap, T. K., Zhang, J., et al. (2000). Childhood-onset schizophrenia/autistic disorder and t(1;7) reciprocal translocation: Identification of a BAC contig spanning the translocation breakpoint at 7q21. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96, 749–753.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, L., Wang, Y. F., Li, J., & Faraone, S. V. (2004). Association of norepinephrine transporter gene with methylphenidate response. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 1154–1158.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, H. (2000). Family-based association studies. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 9, 563–587.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Josephine Elia & Karin Borgmann-Winter

  2. Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

    Dorothy Grice

Authors
  1. Josephine Elia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Karin Borgmann-Winter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dorothy Grice
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Health Outcomes & Health Beh, Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Whitehaven St, NW 3300, Washington, 20007, District of Columbia, USA

    Kenneth P. Tercyak

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Elia, J., Borgmann-Winter, K., Grice, D. (2010). Childhood Neuropsychiatric Risk. In: Tercyak, K. (eds) Handbook of Genomics and the Family. Issues in Clinical Child Psychology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-5800-6_16

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation