Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Gender and Leadership: Negotiating the Labyrinth

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology

Abstract

There is no topic with more profound implications for gender equality than leadership. Gender equality cannot be attained until women and men share leadership equally. With unfettered access of women to leadership, the policies of organizations and governments would balance the concerns of women and men more equitably. Yet, women and men are not equally represented as leaders in any contemporary nation. Therefore, it is essential that people committed to furthering gender equality understand what enhances the access of women and men to leadership and their ability to perform well in leader roles.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Acker, J. (1990). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gender & Society, 4, 139–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adler, N. J. (2008). I am my mother’s daughter: Early developmental influences on leadership. European Journal of International Management, 2, 6–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agars, M. D. (2004). Reconsidering the impact of gender stereotypes on the advancement of women in organizations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 103–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, T. D., Eby, L. T., Poteet, M. L., Lentz, E., & Lima, L. (2004). Career benefits associated with mentoring for proteges: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 127–136.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong-Stassen, M. (2005). Coping with downsizing: A comparison of executive-level and middle managers. International Journal of Stress Management, 12, 117–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atwater, L. E., Brett, J. F., Waldman, D., DiMare, L., & Hayden, M. V. (2004). Men’s and women’s perceptions of the gender typing of management subroles. Sex Roles, 50, 191–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avolio, B. J. (1999). Full leadership development: Building the vital forces in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayman, R., & Korabik, K. (in press). Leadership: Why gender and culture matter. American Psychologist.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailyn, L. (2002). Time in organizations: Constraints on, and possibilities for, gender equity in the workplace. In R. J. Burke & D. L. Nelson (Eds.), Advancing women’s careers: Research and practice (pp. 262–272). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banaji, M. R., & Hardin, C. D. (1996). Automatic stereotyping. Psychological Science, 7, 136–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass & Stogdill`s handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, E. J. E., & Nkomo, S. M. (2001). Our separate ways: Black and White woman and the struggle for professional identity. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bianchi, S. M., Robinson, J. P., & Milkie, M. A. (2006). Changing rhythms of American family life. New York: Russell Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biernat, M. (2005). Standards and expectancies: Contrast and assimilation in judgments of self and others. New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2006). The gender pay gap: Going, going …but not gone. In F. D. Blau, M. C. Brinton, & D. B. Grusky (Eds.), The declining significance of gender? (pp. 37–66). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolino, M. C. (1999). Citizenship and impression management: Good soldiers or good actors? Academy of Management Review, 24, 82–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowleg, L. (2008). When Black + lesbian + woman # Black lesbian woman: The methodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative intersectionality research. Sex Roles, 59, 312–325

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, C., Swim, J. K., & Jacobs. R. R. (2000). Evaluating gender biases on actual job performance of real people: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 2194–2215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., Shiffman, S., Lerner, N., & Salovey, P. (2006). Relating emotional abilities to social functioning: A comparison of self-report and performance measures of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 780–795.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brass, D. J. (2001). Social capital and organizational leadership. In S. J. Zaccaro & R. J. Klimoski (Eds.), The nature of organizational leadership: Understanding the performance imperatives confronting today’s leaders (pp. 132–152). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brett, J. M., & Stroh, L. K. (2003). Working 61 hours a week: Why do managers do it? Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 67–78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calás, M. B., & Smircich, L. (1992). Re-writing gender into organization theorizing: Directions from feminist perspectives. In M. Reed & M. Hughes (Eds.), Rethinking organization: New directions in organization theory and analysis (pp. 227–253). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carli, L. L. (1999). Gender, interpersonal power, and social influence. Journal of Social Issues, 55, 81–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, D. A., Simkins, B. J., & Simpson, W. G. (2003). Corporate governance, board diversity, and firm value. Financial Review, 38, 33–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catalyst. (2000). Across three cultures Catalyst finds top barriers to women’s professional advancement. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from https://http://www.catalyst.org/press-release/29/across-three-cultures-catalyst-finds-top-barriers-to-womens-professional-advancement

  • Catalyst. (2004). Women and men in U.S. corporate leadership: Same workplace, different realities? Retrieved March 12, 2007, from http://www.catalyst.org/file/74/women%20and%20men%20in%20u.s.%20corporate%20leadership%20same%20workplace,%20different%20realities.pdf

  • Catalyst. (2006). Connections that count: The informal networks of women of color in the United States. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from http://www.catalyst.org/file/25/women%20of%20color%20-%20connections%20that%20count.pdf

  • Catalyst. (2008). Catalyst 2008 census of the Fortune 500 reveals women gained little ground advancing to business leadership positions. Retrieved December 14, 2008, from http://www.catalyst.org/press-release/141/catalyst-2008-census-of-the-fortune-500-reveals-women-gained-little-ground-advancing-to-business-leadership-positions

  • Cejka, M. A., & Eagly, A. H. (1999). Gender-stereotypic images of occupations correspond to the sex segregation of employment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 413–423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, F. M., & Halpern, D. F. (in press). Women at the top: Powerful leaders define success as work + family. American Psychologist.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cianni, M., & Romberger, B. (1991). Belonging in the corporation: Oral histories of male and female White, Black, and Hispanic managers. Academy of Management Proceedings, 358–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Correll, S. J., Benard, S., & Paik, I. (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty? American Journal of Sociology, 112, 1297–1338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P., Terracciano, A., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 322–331.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2004). When professionals become mothers, warmth doesn’t cut the ice. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 701–718.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahlerup, D. (2006). Women, quotas, and politics. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J. M., & Gross, P. H. (1983). A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 20–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, M. J., & Fielden, S. (1999). Stress and the working women. In G. N. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work (pp. 413–426). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., & Steele, C. M. (2005). Clearing the air: Identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women’s leadership aspirations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 276–287.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davison, H. K., & Burke, M. J. (2000). Sex discrimination in simulated employment contexts: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56, 225–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deaux, K., & Lewis, L. L. (1984). Structure of gender stereotypes: Interrelationships among components and gender label. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 991–1004.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Pater, I. E., van Vianen, A. E. M., Fischer, A. H., & van Ginkel, W. P. (2009). Challenging experiences: Gender differences in task choice. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 24, 4–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desvaux, G., Devillard-Hoellinger, S., & Baumgarten, P. (2008). Women matter: Gender diversity, a corporate performance driver. Paris: McKinsey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2000). Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1171–1188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004). Aversive racism. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 36, pp. 1–52). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duehr, E. E., & Bono, J. E. (2006). Men, women, and managers: Are stereotypes finally changing?Personnel Psychology, 59, 815–846.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H. (2005). Achieving relational authenticity in leadership: Does gender matter? Leadership Quarterly, 16, 459–474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Chin, J. L. (in press). Diversity and leadership in a changing world. American Psychologist.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & van Engen, M. L. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 569–591.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 233–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (1991). Gender and the emergence of leaders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 685–710.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573–598.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., Karau, S. J., & Makhijani, M. G. (1995). Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 125–145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., Makhijani, M. G., & Klonsky, B. G. (1992). Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 3–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ely, R., & Meyerson, D. (2008). Unmasking manly men. Harvard Business Review, 86, 20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erhardt, N. L., Werbel, J. D., & Shrader, C. B. (2003). Board of director diversity and firm financial performance. Corporate Governance, 11, 102–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2007, December 17). Decision-making in the top 50 publicly quoted companies. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/out/measures_out438_en.htm

  • Fassinger, R., Shullman, S., & Stevenson, M. (in press). Toward an affirmative lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender leadership paradigm. American Psychologist.

    Google Scholar 

  • Featherstone, L. (2004). Selling women short: The landmark battle for workers’ rights at Wal-Mart. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. K. (1999). Disappearing acts: Gender, power, and relational practice at work. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. K. (2004). The paradox of postheroic leadership: An essay on gender, power, and transformational change. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 647–661.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foels, R., Driskell, J. E., Mullen, B., & Salas, E. (2000). The effects of democratic leadership on group member satisfaction: An integration. Small Group Research, 31, 676–701.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forret, M. L., & Dougherty, T. W. (2004). Networking behaviors and career outcomes: Differences for men and women? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 419–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foti, R. J., Knee, R. E., Jr., & Backert, R. S. G. (2008). Multi-level implications of framing leadership perceptions as a dynamic process. Leadership Quarterly, 19, 178–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frenkel, M. (2008). Reprogramming femininity? The construction of gender identities in the Israeli hi-tech industry between global and local gender orders. Gender, Work, and Organizations, 15, 352–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friskopp, A., & Silverstein, S. (1996). Straight jobs, gay lives: Gay and lesbian professionals, the Harvard Business School, and the American workplace. New York: Touchstone.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gastil, J. (1994). A meta-analytic review of the productivity and satisfaction of democratic and autocratic leadership. Small Group Research, 25, 384–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geis, F. L. (1993). Self-fulfilling prophecies: A social psychological view of gender. In A. E. Beall & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology of gender (pp. 9–54). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. A., & Ryan, M. K. (2008). The road to the glass cliff: Differences in the perceived suitability of men and women for leadership positions in succeeding and failing organizations. Leadership Quarterly, 19, 530–546.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 657–674.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, M. E., & Eagly, A. H. (2008). Gender stereotypes are alive, well, and busy producing workplace discrimination. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 393–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, M. E., & Okimoto, T. G. (2008). Motherhood: A potential source of bias in employment decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 189–198.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, M. E., Wallen, A. S., Fuchs, D., & Tamkins, M. M. (2004). Penalties for success: Reactions to women who succeed at male gender-typed tasks. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 416–427.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helgesen, S. (1990). The female advantage: Woman’s ways of leadership. New York: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herzog, H. (1999). Gendering politics: Women in Israel. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hexter, R. J. (2007, May–June). On being out as a college president. Gay & Lesbian Review Worldwide, pp. 4–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewlett, S. A. (2002). Creating a life: Professional women and the quest for children. New York: Talk Miramax Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewlett, S. A., & Luce, C. B. (2005). Off-ramps and on-ramps: Keeping talented women on the road to success. Harvard Business Review, 83, 43–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hochschild, A. (1989). The second shift. New York: Viking.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hong, L., & Page, S. E. (2004). Groups of diverse problem solvers can outperform groups of high-ability problem solvers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101, 16385–16389.

    Google Scholar 

  • hooks, b. (1989). Talking back: Thinking feminist, thinking black. Boston, MA: South End Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyt, C. L., & Blascovich, J. (2007). Leadership efficacy and women leaders’ responses to stereotype activation. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10, 595–616.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyt, C. L., & Blascovich, J. (2009). The role of self-efficacy and stereotype activation on cardiovascular, behavioral, and self-report responses in the leadership domain. Leadership Quarterly, 20, 233–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ibarra, H. (1992). Homophily and differential returns: Sex differences in network structure and access in an advertising firm, Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 422–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ibarra, H. (1995). Race, opportunity, and diversity of social circles in managerial networks. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 673–703.

    Google Scholar 

  • Infoplease. (2008). Minorities and women in the 110th Congress. Retrieved March 17, 2008, from http://www.infoplease.com/us/government/women-minorities-110th-congress.html

  • Inter-Parliamentary Union. (2008). Women in national parliaments (situation as of July 31, 2008). Retrieved on September 1, 2008, from http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm

  • Ito, T. A., & Urland, G. R. (2003). Race and gender on the brain: Electrocortical measures of attention to the race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 616–626.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, J. A., & Gerson, K. (2004). The time divide: Work, family, and gender inequality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S. K., Murphy, S. E., Zewdie, S., & Reichard, R. J. (2008). The strong, sensitive type: Effects of gender stereotypes and leadership prototypes on the evaluation of male and female leaders. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 106, 39–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Judge, E. (2003, November 11). Women on board: Help or hindrance? Times, p. 21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Judge, T. A., & Piccolo. R. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 901–910.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kark, R. (2004). The transformational leader: Who is (s)he? A feminist perspective. Journal of Organization Change Management, 17, 160–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kark, R. (2007). Women in the land of milk, honey, and high technology: The Israeli case. In R. Burke & M. Mattis (Eds.), Women and minorities in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: Opening the pipeline (pp. 101–127). Cheltenham, UK: Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kark, R., & Waismel-Manor, R. (2005). Organizational citizenship behavior: What’s gender got to do with it? Organization, 12, 889–917.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kawahara, D. M., Esnil, E. M., & Hsu, J. (2007). Asian American women leaders: The intersection of race, gender, and leadership. In J. L. Chin, B. Lott, J. K. Rice, & J. Sanchez-Hucles (Eds.), Women and leadership: Transforming visions and diverse voices (pp. 297–313). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keshet, S., Kark, R., Pomerantz-Zorin, L., Koslowsky, M., & Schwarzwald, J. (2006). Gender, status, and the use of power strategies. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 105–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kite, M. E., & Deaux, K. (1987). Gender belief systems: Homosexuality and the implicit inversion theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 83–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kite, M. E., Deaux, K., & Haines, E. L. (2008). Gender stereotypes. In F. L. Denmark & M. A. Paludi (Eds.), Psychology of women: A handbook of issues and theories (2nd ed., pp. 205–236). Westport, CT: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kite, M. E., & Whitley, B. E., Jr. (1996). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexual persons, behaviors, and civil rights: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 336–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan, H. A., & Park, D. (2005). A few good women—On top management teams. Journal of Business Research, 58, 1712–1720.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, K. A., Banaji, M. R., Nosek, B. A., & Greenwald, A. G. (2007). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test IV: What we know (so far) about the method. In B. Wittenbrink & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Implicit measures of attitudes (pp. 59–102). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leung, A. K., Maddux, W. W., Galinsky, A. D., & Chiu, C. (2008). Multicultural experience enhances creativity: The when and how. American Psychologist, 63, 169–181.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Livingston, R. W., & Pearce, N. A. (2009). The teddy bear effect: Facial cues of warmth benefit Black CEOs. Psychological Science, 20, 1229–1236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyness, K. S., & Heilman, M. E. (2006). When fit is fundamental: Performance evaluations and promotions of upper-level female and male managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 777–785.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyness, K. S., & Thompson, D. E. (2000). Climbing the corporate ladder: Do female and male executives follow the same route? Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 86–101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Madon, S., Guyll, M., Aboufadel, K., Montiel, E., Smith, A., Palumbo, P., et al. (2001). Ethnic and national stereotypes: The Princeton trilogy revisited and revised. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 996–1010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandel, H., & Semyonov, M. (2005). Family policies, wage structures, and gender gaps: Sources of earnings inequality in 20 countries. American Sociological Review, 70, 949–968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manuel, T., Shefte, S., & Swiss, D. J. (1999). Suiting themselves: Women’s leadership styles in today’s workplace. Cambridge, MA: Radcliffe Public Policy Institute and the Boston Club.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martell, R. F., Parker, C., Emrich, C. G., & Crawford, M. S. (1998). Sex stereotyping in the executive suite: “Much ado about something.” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 13, 127–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J. (1990). Deconstructing organizational taboos: The suppression of gender conflict in organizations. Organization Science, 1, 339–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, P. Y. (1996). Gendering and evaluating dynamics: Men, masculinities, and managements. In D. L. Collinson & J. Hearn (Eds.), Men as managers, managers as men (pp. 186–209). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maume, D. J., Jr. (1999). Occupational segregation and the career mobility of White men and women. Social Forces, 77, 1433–1459.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCauley, C. D., Ruderman, M. N., Ohlott, P. J., & Morrow, J. E. (1994). Assessing the developmental components of managerial jobs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 544–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • McElroy, J. C., Morrow, P. C., & Rude, S. N. (2001). Turnover and organizational performance: A comparative analysis of the effects of voluntary, involuntary, and reduction-in-force turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1294–1299.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyerson, D. E. (2001). Tempered radicals: How people use difference to inspire change at work. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, S. L., Forest, K. B., & Jurik, N. C. (2003). Diversity in blue: Lesbian and gay police officers in a masculine occupation. Men and Masculinities, 5, 355–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohanty, C. T. (1991). Under Western eyes: Feminist scholarship and colonial discourses. In C. T. Mohanty, A. Russo, & L. Torres (Eds.), Third world women and the politics of feminism (pp. 51–80). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Molinsky, A. (2007). Cross-cultural code switching: The psychological challenges of adapting behavior in foreign cultural interactions. Academy of Management Review, 32, 622–640.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, E. W. (1994). Role definitions and organizational citizenship behavior: The importance of the employee’s perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 1543–1567.

    Google Scholar 

  • Musteen, M., Barker, V. L., III, & Baeten, V. L. (2006). CEO attributes associated with attitude toward change: The direct and moderating effects of CEO tenure. Journal of Business Research, 59, 604–612.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newport, F. (1998, July). Americans more likely to believe sexual orientation due to environment, not genetics. Gallup Poll Monthly. Retrieved September 5, 2008, from Gallup Brain, http: http://www.brain.gallup.com

  • Newport, F. (2001, February 21). Americans see women as emotional and affectionate, men as more aggressive: Gender specific stereotypes persist in recent Gallup poll. Retrieved September 13, 2009, from Gallup Brain, http://brain.gallup.com

  • Niemann, Y. F., Jennings, L., Rozelle, R. M., Baxter, J. C., & Sullivan, E. (1994). Use of free responses and cluster analysis to determine stereotypes of eight groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 379–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, S. E. (2007). The difference: How the power of diversity creates better groups, firms, schools, and societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paolillo, J. G. P. (1981). Managers’ self assessments of managerial roles: The influence of hierarchical level. Journal of Management, 7, 43–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, P. S. (2005). Race, gender, and leadership: Re-envisioning organizational leadership from the perspectives of African American women executives. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, P. S., & Ogilvie, D. T. (1996). Gender, culture, and leadership: Toward a culturally distinct model of African-American women executives’ leadership strategies. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 189–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polzer, J. T., Milton, L. P., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (2002). Capitalizing on diversity: Interpersonal congruence in small work groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 296–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portegijs, W., Hermans, B., & Lalta, V. (2006). Emancipatiemonitor 2006. The Hague: Sociaal Cultureel Planbureau.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, G. N., Butterfield, D. A., & Parent, J. D. (2002). Gender and managerial stereotypes: Have the times changed? Journal of Management, 28, 177–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prentice, D. A., & Miller, D. T. (2006). Essentializing differences between women and men. Psychological Science, 17, 129–135.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R., & Cornwell, J. M. (2001). Pink triangles: Antecedents and consequences of perceived workplace discrimination against gay and lesbian employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1244–1261.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R., Cornwell, J. M., & Miller, J. S. (2003). Heterosexism in the workplace: Do race and gender matter? Group & Organization Management, 28, 45–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, R., Bailyn, L., Fletcher, J. K., & Pruitt, B. H. (2002). Beyond work-family balance: Advancing gender equity and workplace performance. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Remennick, L. (2008). Contested motherhood in the ethnic state: Voices from an Israeli postpartum ward. Ethnicities, 8, 199–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riach, P. A., & Rich, J. (2002). Field experiments of discrimination in the market place. Economic Journal, 112, F480–F518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rink, F., & Ellemers, N. (2009). Managing diversity in work groups: How identity processes affect diverse work groups. In M. Barreto, M. K. Ryan, & M. T. Schmitt (Eds.), The glass ceiling in the 21st century: Understanding barriers to gender inequality (pp. 281–303). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ritter, B. A., & Yoder, J. D. (2004). Gender differences in leader emergence persist even for dominant women: An updated confirmation of role congruity theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 187–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosener, J. B. (1995). America’s competitive secret: Women managers. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 743–762.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rule, N. O., & Ambady, N. (2008). The face of success: Inferences from chief executive officers’ appearance predict company profits. Psychological Science, 19, 109–111.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. (2005). The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over-represented in precarious leadership positions. British Journal of Management, 16, 81–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. (2007). The glass cliff: Exploring the dynamics surrounding the appointment of women to precarious leadership positions. Academy of Management Review, 32, 549–572.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez-Hucles, J., & Davis, D. D. (in press). Diverse voices in leadership: The role of gender, race, and identity. American Psychologist.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sayer, L. C., Cohen, P. N., & Casper, L. M. (2004). The American people: Women, men, and work. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schein, V. E. (1973). The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57, 95–100.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schein, V. E. (2001). A global look at psychological barriers to women’s progress in management. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 675–688.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, K. A., & Brown, D. J. (2006). Female first, leader second? Gender bias in the encoding of leadership behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 101, 230–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sczesny, S., Bosak, J., Neff, D., & Schyns, B. (2004). Gender stereotypes and the attribution of leadership traits: A cross-cultural comparison. Sex Roles, 51, 631–645.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sczesny, S., & Kühnen, U. (2004). Meta-cognition about biological sex and gender-stereotypic physical appearance: Consequences for the assessment of leadership competence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 13–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L., & Liden, R. C. (2001). A social capital theory of career success. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 219–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shields, S. A. (2008). Gender: An intersectionality perspective. Sex Roles, 59, 301–311.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shilts, R. (1980, January). Gay police. Police Magazine, pp. 32–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shrader, C. B., Blackburn, V. B., & Iles, P. (1997). Women in management and firm financial performance: An exploratory study. Journal of Managerial Issues, 9, 355–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silvestri, M. (2003). Women in charge: Policing, gender, and leadership. Portland, OR: Willan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. A. (2002). Race, gender, and authority in the workplace: Theory and research. Annual Review of Sociology, 28, 509–542.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, K. (2006). The G quotient: Why gay executives are excelling as leaders … and what every manager needs to know. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., & Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 379–440). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stockdale, M. S., & Bhattacharya, G. (2009). Sexual harassment and the glass ceiling. In M. Barreto, M. K. Ryan, & M. T. Schmitt (Eds.), The glass ceiling in the 21st century: Understanding barriers to gender inequality (pp. 171–199). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Timberlake, S. (2005). Social capital and gender in the workplace. Journal of Management Development, 24, 34–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. A. (1990). The impact of race on managers’ experiences of developmental relationships (mentoring and sponsorship): An intra-organizational study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 479–492.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2008). Household data, annual averages: Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. Retrieved March 17, 2008, from http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.pdf

  • U.S. National Center for Educational Statistics. (2007). Digest of education statistics, 2007. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d07/ch_1.asp

  • United Nations Development Programme. (2008). Human development report 2007–2008. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Engen, M. L., & Willemsen, T. M. (2004). Sex and leadership styles: A meta-analysis of research published in the 1990s. Psychological Reports, 94, 3–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Knippenberg, D., & Schippers, M. C. (2007). Work group diversity. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 515–541.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Vianen, A. E. M., & Fischer, A. H. (2002). Illuminating the glass ceiling: The role of organizational culture preferences. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75, 315–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vecchio, R. P. (2002). Leadership and gender advantage. Leadership Quarterly, 13, 643–671.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vinnicombe, S., & Singh, V. (2003). Women-only management training: An essential part of women’s leadership development. Journal of Change Management, 3, 294–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • von Hippel, W., Sekaquaptewa, D., & Vargas, P. (1995). On the role of encoding processes in stereotype maintenance. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 27, pp. 177–254). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wajcman, J. (1998). Managing like a man: Women and men in corporate management. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. (2000). Unbending gender: Why family and work conflict and what to do about it. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2009). Gender identity. In M. Leary & R. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in social behavior. (pp. 109–125). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zebrowitz, L. A., & Montepare, J. M. (2005). Appearance does matter. Science, 308, 1565–1566.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel

    Ronit Kark

  2. Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA

    Alice H. Eagly

Authors
  1. Ronit Kark
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alice H. Eagly
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Connecticut College, Mohegan Avenue 270, New London, 06320, U.S.A.

    Joan C. Chrisler

  2. Elm Street 38, Toronto, M5G 2K5, Canada

    Donald R. McCreary

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kark, R., Eagly, A.H. (2010). Gender and Leadership: Negotiating the Labyrinth. In: Chrisler, J., McCreary, D. (eds) Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1467-5_19

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation