Abstract
The marmosets, Callithrix spp. and Cebuella pygmaea, are unique among anthropoids in their habitual biting of trees with their anterior teeth to elicit exudate flow. This tree-gouging behavior is thought to offer certain ecological benefits to marmosets, such as routine access to an under-exploited resource, as well as have specific influences on their behavioral ecology.
In order to better understand morphological adaptations for tree gouging in the marmoset masticatory apparatus, we characterized the mechanics of this behavior in a laboratory setting and compared these data to field observations of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) in northeast Brazil. Common marmosets generate biting forces up to eight times their body mass when biting simulated tree substrates in the laboratory. When gouging, however, marmosets are not biting as forcefully as they can. Comparisons of the mechanical properties of laboratory substrates with trees gouged in the wild suggest that gouging forces observed in the laboratory are comparable to those that marmosets use during gouging in the wild. Moreover, marmosets use relatively wide jaw gapes during gouging both in the laboratory and in the wild. These wide jaw gapes during gouging approach the maximum structural capacity for jaw opening in common marmosets.
Morphological comparisons of masticatory apparatus form between gouging marmosets and nongouging tamarins corroborate these laboratory and field data. Marmosets do not exhibit morphologies that offer increased force generation or load resistance abilities. Furthermore, marmosets exhibit several morphologies of their masticatory apparatus that facilitate increased jaw opening. Previous suggestions that marmoset gouging involves relatively large bite forces likely misrepresent the nature of this behavior. Instead, marmosets need only to score the tree bark to elicit the tree’s defense response of exudate flow.
Resumen
Los marmosets Callithrix spp. y Cebuella pygmea, son únicos entre los antropóides en su habitual mordisco en árboles con sus dientes anteriores para sacar corrientes exudadas. Este comportamiento de excavación de árboles se cree ofrece a ellos ciertos beneficios ecológicos, tal como el acceso rutinario a recursos poco utilizados, asi como tener influencias específicas en su comportamiento ecológico.
Con el propósito de entender adaptaciones morfológicas para excavar árboles en el aparato masticatorio de los marmoset, caracterizamos los mecanismos de dicho comportamiento en un laboratorio y comparamos nuestros datos de laboratorio con las observaciones de campo de Callithrix jacchus en el noreste de Brazil. Los Callithrix jacchus generan al morder hasta ocho veces su masa corporal al ser estimulados por substancias de árboles en el laboratorio. Sin embargo, al cavar, los C. jacchus no mordieron tan fuerte como ellos pueden. Comparaciones de las propiedades mecánicas de los substratos de laboratorio con árboles excavados en estado salvaje sugiere que las fuerzas de excavación observadas en el laboratorio son comparables con aquellos que los marmosets usarian durante la excavación en la selva. Alternativamente, los marmosets usan aperturas de mandíbulas relativamente amplias, medidas como la distancia entre las puntas incisivas superiores e inferiores, durante la excavación tanto en el laboratorio como en lo salvaje. Dichas aperturas de mandíbulas durante la excavación se acercan la capacidad máxima estructural de apertura de mandíbula en los marmosets comunes.
Comparaciones morfológicas de la forma de los aparatos masticatorios entre los marmosets excavadores y los tamarins no excavadores corroboran los datos de laboratorio y de campo. Los marmosets no muestran morfologías que ofrecen incremento en la generación de fuerza o habilidades de resistencia de carga. Alternativamente, los marmosets exhiben variadas morfologías en su aparato masticatorio que facilitan las habilidades de apertura de mandibula. Sugerencias anteriores de que la excavación marmoset muestra fuerzas de mordiscos relativamente grandes es probable que no representa la naturaleza de este comportamiento; los marmosets simplemente proponen marcar árboles para sacarle a los árboles su reacción de defensa.
Resumo
Os sagüis, Callithrix spp. and Cebuella pygmaea, são únicos entre os antropóides no hábito de morder as árvores com seus dentes anteriores para induzir o fluxo de exsudados. Este comportamento de perfurar o tronco das árvores é concebido como algo que ofereceria benefícios ecológicos aos sagüis, tais como o acesso rotineiro a recursos sub-explorados, assim como traria influências específicas na sua ecologia comportamental.
Para entender melhor estas adaptações morfológicas para perfuração de árvores no aparato mastigação dos sagüis, nós caracterizamos a mecânica deste comportamento em laboratório e comparamos estes dados à s observações de campo de sagüis (Callithrix jacchus) no nordeste do Brasil. Sagüis geram forças de mordida de até oito vezes as suas massas corporais quando mordem substratos de árvores simulados no laboratório. Quando perfuram o tronco, entretanto, os sagüis não mordem tão forte quanto poderiam. Comparações das propriedades mecânicas dos substratos de laboratório com as árvores perfuradas no campo sugerem que as forças de mordida observadas em laboratório são comparáveis aquelas que os sagüis devem empregar na perfuração dos troncos no campo. Ademais, os sagüis fazem aberturas da boca relativamente amplas durante a perfuração tanto no laboratório como no campo. Estas aberturas amplas durante a perfuração dos troncos se aproximam da capacidade de abertura máxima estrutural da mandíbula nos sagüis.
Comparações morfológicas do aparato de mastigação entre micos e sagüis que perfuram e que não perfuram troncos corroboram com estes dados de laboratório e do campo. Sagüis não apresentam morfologias que permitam um aumento na geração de força ou na capacidade de resistência à carga. Além disso, sagüis exibem várias morfologias do aparato de mastigação que facilitam um aumento da abertura da boca. Sugestões prévias de que a perfuração dos troncos nos sagüis envolvem forças de mordidas relativamente grandes foram provavelmente fruto de uma má interpretação da natureza deste comportamento. Ao invés disso, os sagüis precisam somente raspar a casca das árvores para estimular su a resposta de defesa sob a forma de um fluxo de exsudado.
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Notes
- 1.
The terms gummivory and exudativory have both been used to describe feeding on tree exudates. Nash (1986) discusses differences in these terms. We use them synonymously to include references applying either term as our interest is primarily related to the associated feeding behavior.
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Acknowledgements
We thank Susan Ford, Lesa Davis and Leila Porter for inviting us to contribute to this volume and participate in the symposium “Advances in Marmoset and Goeldi’s Monkey (Callimico) Research: Anatomy, Behavioral Ecology, Phylogeny, and Conservation” held at the American Association of Physical Anthropologists Meetings on April 8, 2005. We also thank B. Darvell, W. Horne, P. Lemelin and P. Vinyard for assistance and advice. This research was supported by grants from NSF (BCS-0094666), (BCS-0412153), (SBR-9701425), (SBR-940764), (BCS-99-04401), the L.S.B. Leakey Foundation, and the National Geographic Society.
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Vinyard, C.J. et al. (2009). The Evolutionary Morphology of Tree Gouging in Marmosets. In: Ford, S., Porter, L., Davis, L. (eds) The Smallest Anthropoids. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0293-1_20
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