Abstract
Despite the changes and, perhaps, in some cases, because of them, race relations in the United States continue to be a major concern for social scientists. Eighty years of research has provided insight into the causes and pervasiveness of racial bias, strategies for eliminating racial bias, and the effects of racial bias (Fiske, 2004).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
ABC News.com Poll. (2000, July). Retrieved August 18, 2007, from http://www.pollingreport.com/race.htm
Affinito, M. G. (1999). When to forgive. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.
Aquino, K., & Reed, A. (2002, December). The self-importance of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 1423–1440.
Au, W., & Komorita, S. (2002, October). Effects of initial choices in the prisoner's dilemma. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 15(4), 343–359.
Barras, J. R. (2000). Whatever happened to daddy's little girl? The impact of fatherlessness on black women. New York, NY: The Ballantine Publishing Group.
Bobo, L. D. (2001). Racial attitudes and relations at the close of the twentieth century. In N. J. Smelser, W. J. Wilson, & F. Michael (Eds.), American becoming. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Branscombe, N., Schmitt, M., & Harvey, R. (1999, July). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 135–149.
Browne, B. (1998). Imagine Chicago: A study in intergenerational appreciative inquiry. In Hammond, S. A. & Royal, C. (Eds.), Lessons from the filed: Applying appreciative inquiry. Plano, TX: Practical Press, Inc.
Clark, K. B. and Clark, M. P. (1957). Racial identification and preference in Negro children. In T. M. Newcomb and E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Cook, S. W. (1984). Cooperative interaction in multi-ethnic contexts. In N. Miller & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation. New York: Academic Press.
Cooperrider, D. L., Sorensen, P. F., Jr., Whitney, D., & Yaeger, T. F. (Eds.). (2000). Appreciative inquiry: Rethinking human organization toward a positive theory of change. Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing, LLC.
Cose, E. (2004, February 15). Bone to pick: Of forgiveness, reconciliation, reparations, and revenge. New York: Atria Books.
Crocker, D. A. (2000). Retribution and reconciliation. Retrieved August 18, 2007, from http://www.puaf.umd.edu/IPPP/Winter-Spring00retribution_and_reconciliation.htm
Cross, W. E. (1991). Shades of black: Diversity in African American identity. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Cross, W. E., Jr., & Vandiver, B. J. (2001). Nigrescence theory and measurement: Introducing the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS). In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed., pp. 371–393). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Danieli, Y. (1998). International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma. New York: Plenum Press.
Darby, B. W., & Schlenker, B. R. (1982). Children's reactions to apologies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 742–753.
DeGruy-Leary, J. (2005). Post traumatic slave syndrome: America's legacy of enduring injury and healing. Milwaukie, OR: Uptone Press.
Dovidio, J., & Gaertner, S. (1996, Winter). Affirmative action, unintentional racial biases, and intergroup relations. Journal of Social Issues, 52(4), 51–75.
Dovidio, J. Gaertner, S. L., Validzic, A. Matota, K., Jonson, B., & Frazier, S. (1997). Extending the benefits of recategorization: Evaluations, self-disclosure and helping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 401–420.
Enright, R. D., & Fitzgibbons, R. P. (2000). Helping clients forgive: An empirical guide for resolving anger and restoring hope. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Enright, R., Santos, M., & Al-Mabuk, R. (1989, March). The adolescent as forgiver. Journal of Adolescence, 12(1), 95–110.
Exline, J., Baumeister, R., Bushman, B., Campbell, W., & Finkel, E. (2004, December). Too proud to let go: Narcissistic entitlement as a barrier to forgiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(6), 894–912.
Exline, J. J., Worthington, E., Hill, P., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Forgiveness and justice: A research agenda for social and personality psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7(4), 337–348.
Fincham, F., & Kashdan, T. (2004). Facilitating forgiveness: Developing group and community interventions. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Fiske, T. E. (2004). Social beings: A core motives approach to social psychology. New York: John Wiley &Sons, Inc.
Franzoi, S. (2000). Social psychology (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gibbons, F., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M., Wills, T., & Brody, G. (2004, April). Perceived discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children: A panel study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(4), 517–529.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.
Grier, W., & Cobbs, P. (1968). Black rage. New York: Basic Books.
Hammond, S. A., & Royal, C. (Eds.). (1998). Lessons from the filed: Applying appreciative inquiry. Plano, TX: Practical Press, Inc.
Helms, J. E., & Parham, T. A. (1992). The relationship between black identity attitudes and cognitive styles. In J. E. Helms (Ed.), Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Holmgren, M. R. (1993). Forgiveness and the intrinsic value of persons. American Philosophical Quarterly, 30, 341–352.
Ilibagiza, I. (2006). Left to tell: Discovering God amidst the Rwandan holocaust. Carlsbad, CA: Hay House.
Kaplan, B. (1992, February). Social health and the forgiving heart: The type B story. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(1), 3–14.
Kardiner, A., & Ovesey, L. (1951). The mark of oppression: Explorations in the personality of the American Negro. New York: Norton
Katz, I., & Hass, R. (1988, December). Racial ambivalence and American value conflict: Correlational and priming studies of dual cognitive structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(6), 893–905.
Katz, I., Wackenhut, J., & Hass, R. (1986). Racial ambivalence, value duality, and behavior. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
King, M. L., Jr. (1957). Loving your enemies. Retrieved August 18, 2007, from http://www.creighton.edu/mlk/speeches/enemies.html
Kohlberg, L. (1963). The development of children's orientations toward a moral order: Sequence in the development of moral thought. Vita Humana, 6(1), 11–33.
Komorita, S., Chan, D., & Parks, C. (1993, May). The effects of reward structure and reciprocity in social dilemmas. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 29(3), 252–267.
Liem, R. (2007). Silencing historical trauma: The politics and psychology of memory and voice. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 13(2), 153–174.
McCullough, M., & Witvliet, C. V. (2002). The psychology of forgiveness. New York: Oxford University Press.
McCullough, M., Worthington, E., & Rachal, K. (1997, August). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(2), 321–336.
Miller, T., Smith, T., Turner, C., Guijarro, M., & Hallet, A. (1996, March). Meta-analytic review of research on hostility and physical health. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 322–348.
Niederhoffer, K., & Pennebaker, J. (2002). Sharing one's story: On the benefits of writing or talking about emotional experience. New York: Oxford University Press.
Osgood, C. (1962). An alternative to war or surrender. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Pruitt, D. (1998). Social conflict. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Robinson, R. (2000). The debt: What America owes to Blacks. New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc.
Reed, A., & Aquino, K. (2003, June). Moral identity and the expanding circle of moral regard toward out-groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6), 1270–1286.
Ripley, J., & Worthington, E. (2002, September). Hope-focused and forgiveness-based group interventions to promote marital enrichment. Journal of Counseling & Development, 80(4), 452–463.
Scarville, J., Button, S. B., Edwards, J. E., Lancaster, A. R., & Elig, T. W. (1999). Armed Forces Equal Opportunity Survey. (Rep.) Arlington, Virginia: Defense Manpower Data Center Survey & Program Evaluation Division.
Seligman, M. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press.
Sellers, R., Rowley, S., Chavous, T., Shelton, J., & Smith, M. (1997, October). Multidimensional inventory of Black identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 805–815.
Sellers, R., Smith, M., Shelton, J., Rowley, S., & Chavous, T. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 18–39.
Shelton, J., & Richeson, J. (2005, January). Intergroup contact and pluralistic ignorance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(1), 91–107.
Schimmel, S. (2002). Wounds not healed by time: The power of repentance and forgiveness. New York: Oxford University Press.
Schiller, M. (2001) Case study: Avon Mexico. In J. M. Watkins & B. J. Mohr (Eds.). Appreciative inquiry: Change at the speed of imagination. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
Snyder, C., & Higgins, R. (1988, July). Excuses: Their effective role in the negotiation of reality. Psychological Bulletin, 104(1), 23–35.
Steele, C. (1997). Race and the schooling of Black Americans. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Stewart, A. K., & Royal, C. (1998). Imagine South Carolina: A citizen's summit and public dialogue. In S. A. Hammond & C. Royal (Eds.), Lessons from the filed: Applying appreciative inquiry. Plano, TX: Practical Press, Inc.
Taylor, D., Wright, S., & Porter, L. (1994). Dimensions of perceived discrimination: The personal/group discrimination discrepancy. Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Tutu, D. (1999). No future without forgiveness. New York: Random House
Underwood, B., & Moore, B. (1982, January). Perspective-taking and altruism. Psychological Bulletin, 91(1), 143–173.
U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board. (1997). Fair & equitable treatment: A progress report on minority employment in the federal government. (Rep.) Washington, DC: U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board Office of Policy and Evaluation.
Vandiver, B., Cross, W., Worrell, F., & Fhagen-Smith, P. (2002, January). Validating the Cross racial identity scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49(1), 71–85.
Wade, N., & Worthington, E. (2005, June). In search of a common core: A content analysis of interventions to promote forgiveness. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 42(2), 160–177.
Watkins, J. M., & Mohr, B. J. (2001). Appreciative inquiry: Change at the speed of imagination. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
Williams, R., & Williams, V. (1993). Anger kills. New York: Random House.
Witvliet, c. V., Ludwig, T. E., Van der Laan, K. L. (2001). Granting forgiveness or harboring grudges: Implications for emotion, physiology, and health. Psychological Science, 121, 117–123.
Wohl, M., & Branscombe, N. (2005, February). Forgiveness and collective guilt assignment to historical perpetrator groups depend on level of social category inclusiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(2), 288–303.
Worthington, E. (2001). Five steps to forgiveness. New York: Crown.
Worthington, E., Sandage, S., & Berry, J. (2000). Group interventions to promote forgiveness: What researchers and clinicians ought to know. New York: Guilford Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
LaMar, A.W. (2009). A Black Social Psychologist's Perspective on Racial Forgiveness. In: Forgiveness and Reconciliation. Peace Psychology Book Series. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0181-1_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0181-1_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-0180-4
Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-0181-1
eBook Packages: Behavioral ScienceBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)