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Climate Governance in the Arctic pp 403–427Cite as

Climate Change and the Future of Arctic Governance: A Slushy Seascape and Hard Questions

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Part of the book series: Environment & Policy ((ENPO,volume 50))

Abstract

In light of expected increasing human pressures on Arctic marine resources due to climate change and resultant thinning ice, this chapter explores future directions for ocean governance from two perspectives. First, under the theme of “a slushy seascape” various initiatives of a soft, non-legally binding nature are highlighted. Three avenues holding particular promise to influence future governance strengthenings are described including: initiatives under the Arctic Council’s Arctic Marine Strategic Plan, revision of the Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered Waters and the review of the Arctic Council’s structure being led by Norway.

A second perspective is a review of three “hard questions” facing Arctic states in the wake of increased human access to marine and coastal resources. Is a treaty framework needed to solidify and strengthen regional cooperation? If a shift towards “hard law” occurs for the Arctic, what type of treaty approach should be followed in view of diverse regional practices around the globe? How should Arctic Ocean areas beyond national maritime zones be addressed? The chapter discusses four main governance options for the areas beyond national jurisdiction – a law of the sea approach, coastal state control, a multilateral agreement approach and global initiatives.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Regarding the projected natural resource rush in light of intense climate change, see, e.g., Brigham (2007) and Hansen (2007).

  2. 2.

    All six working groups of the Arctic Council, discussed in the chapter by Koivurova and Hasanat, have potential to influence future law and policy developments. For example, the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) and the Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP) Working Groups have already identified the need to consider the adding of various brominated flame retardants for controls under existing international chemical conventions. See AMAP and ACAP (2005) and ACAP (2007).

  3. 3.

    Adopted under IMO auspices in 2002, MSC/Circ. 1056 and MEPC/Circ. 399.

  4. 4.

    The four goals are: reduce and prevent pollution in the Arctic marine environment; conserve Arctic marine biodiversity and ecosystem functions; promote the health and prosperity of all Arctic inhabitants; and advance sustainable Arctic marine resource use.

  5. 5.

    First adopted in 1997, they were updated in 2002.

  6. 6.

    For an initial report under the AMSA umbrella, see (Global Business Network [GBN], 2008).

  7. 7.

    VanderZwaag et al. (2008, October 10). Governance of Arctic Marine Shipping [report]. Halifax: Marine & Environmental Law Institute. The author was co-lead for the multi-authored report.

  8. 8.

    While the IMO Arctic Guidelines urge all ships operating in ice-covered waters to have on board at least one ice navigator with documentary evidence of completing an approved training programme in ice navigation, most ice navigator training programmes are ad hoc and there are no uniform international training standards (VanderZwaag et al., 2008, p. 69, Key Finding # 5).

  9. 9.

    The International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) has adopted a set of Unified Requirements for Construction Standards from Ships of Polar Class applying to ships contracted for construction on and after 1 March 2008 but the provisions are not mandatory (International Association of Classification Societies [IACS], 2007).

  10. 10.

    As suggested by Article 13 of the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments, 16 February 2004, IMO/BW/CONF/36.

  11. 11.

    As proposed for the Antarctic (Final Report, 2005, Decision 8 [Use of Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) in Antarctica], para. 94; Use and carriage, 2006). The proposal is under review within the IMO Sub-Committee on Bulk Liquids and Gases (BLG) (2008).

  12. 12.

    Since Arctic states already have extensive powers to control marine pollution from ships in ice-covered waters within their 200 n.m. exclusive economic zones pursuant to Article 234 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ([UNCLOS], 1982), states could choose to only request special area designation of Arctic waters outside 200 n.m. zones and northern waters not covered by ice most of year. For a discussion of the strict special area standards, see Gold (2006, pp. 208, 214, 233).

  13. 13.

    Following a broad interpretation of Article 234 of the Law of the Sea Convention, Arctic states might only seek IMO designations in selected ocean areas outside 200 n.m. zones, if, of course, shipping risks and pressures would eventually warrant designation. See IMO (2005).

  14. 14.

    For a further review, see Muir (2008).

  15. 15.

    The scientific assessment report draft chapters are available online at http://www.amap. no/workdocs/index.cfm?dirsub=%2FOGA%20Scientific%20Report&sor. Retrieved September 25, 2008.

  16. 16.

    The Offshore Oil & Gas Guidelines already urge institutional strengthening in the regional context including cooperation in “bilateral and multilateral initiatives to address the needs, in concert with the public and with oil and gas industry operators.” (PAME, 2002, p. 12).

  17. 17.

    For an overview of the regional potential and challenges, see Osadetz (2008).

  18. 18.

    For a negative viewpoint, see Hamilton (2008).

  19. 19.

    Various initiatives have already been taken in developing guidance for the tourism industry. The Sustainable Arctic Tourism Association (SATA), founded in October 2005 and growing out of the Sustainable Model for Arctic Tourism project (SMART) has adopted six principles, or guidelines, for sustainable tourism and is committed to developing a certification system for tourist operations in the Arctic region (Sustainable Arctic Tourism Association [SATA], 2005). The WWF has developed Ten Principles for Arctic Tourism, a Code of Conduct for Tour Operators in the Arctic, and a Code of Conduct of Arctic Tourists (World Wide Found for Nature [WWF], n.d.).

  20. 20.

    Such guidelines might be based upon the Guidelines for Ballast Water Exchange in the Antarctic Treaty Area [Ballast Water Exchange Guidelines] adopted by Resolution 3 at the Twenty-Ninth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting where Parties recognized the fact that the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments, 2004 has yet to enter into force, and noted the Convention’s provision that states bordering enclosed and semi-enclosed seas should endeavour to cooperate with neighbouring Parties, including through regional agreements, to harmonize procedures. The Ballast Water Exchange Guidelines are attached as an Annex to Resolution 3 (Final Report, 2006 , pp. 16–17). The Guidelines have subsequently been adopted by the Marine Environment Protection Committee of the IMO through resolution MEPC. 163(56) of 13 July 2007.

  21. 21.

    Such guidelines might be based upon the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators [IAATO] (2003). Marine Wildlife Watching Guidelines (Whales and Dolphins, Seals and Seabirds) for Vessel and Zodiac Operations.

  22. 22.

    While Arctic states obviously maintain rights to control access to bioprospecting within their exclusive economic zones, issues of access and possible benefit sharing from commercial development of biochemical and genetic resources beyond EEZs in the Arctic loom on the horizon. For further discussions, see In Search of a legal regime (2006) and Leary (2008).

  23. 23.

    EPPR Workplan 2007–2009, online: <http://eppr.arctic-council.org/pdf/EPPR_Workplan2007-2009_Final.pdf>.

  24. 24.

    Key features include: consideration of multiple scales, a long-term perspective, recognition that humans are an integral part of ecosystems, an adaptive management perspective and a concern for sustaining production and consumption potential for goods and services (Arctic Council, 2004, s. 6.1).

  25. 25.

    The five-part information summaries cover productivity, fish and fisheries, pollution and ecosystem health, socioeconomic factors, and governance (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA], n.d.).

  26. 26.

    The Map is available online: <http://arcticportal.org/ca/pame/ecosystem-approach>.

  27. 27.

    For a discussion of the limited number of transboundary agreements or arrangements, which cover, for example, the conservation of polar bears, narwhals, and belugas, see Caulfield (2004) and Bankes (2005).

  28. 28.

    Only about 2.5% of Arctic sea areas are protected versus over 17% of Arctic lands protected (Lysenko, 2005).

  29. 29.

    Nine source categories were listed with persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals listed as high priorities.

  30. 30.

    The working group is expected to report at the twenty-fifth regular session of the Council/Forum in 2009 (Governing Council, 2007, Decision 24/3 (Chemicals management)).

  31. 31.

    A Polar Class 1 ship would be capable of year-round operation in the Arctic ice-covered waters while the least ice capable Polar Class 7 would be able to operate in summer/autumn in thin first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (IMO, 2002, Table 1.1).

  32. 32.

    A suggested list of items for the survival kit are set out in Table 11.2 and includes, among other things, an approved immersion suit, an insulated suit, mits, boots and handwarmers.

  33. 33.

    Copy on file with the author.

  34. 34.

    As requested through the Salekhard Declaration (2006) from the Fifth Arctic Council Ministerial Meeting in October 2006.

  35. 35.

    Even a global treaty for the Arctic rather than a regional agreement has been suggested (Verhaag, 2003).

  36. 36.

    For a review of disadvantages, see Nowlan (2001, pp. 59–60), Young (2000, p. 15). For papers suggesting implementation of existing international agreements rather than negotiation of a new binding regional regime, see Stokke (2006), Correll (2006).

  37. 37.

    The United States, in particular, has been wary of a regional seas type agreement for the Arctic (Young, 2000, p. 12).

  38. 38.

    For example, IUCN has been cautious about pushing a position in regard to an Arctic legal instrument or instruments. A meeting of Arctic experts, convened by the IUCN Environmental Law Program and the Council of Environmental Law (an IUCN member) in Ottawa in March 2004 was not able to reach consensus on the need for a new agreement or agreements. IUCN Resolution 3.037, adopted at the World Congress in 2004, merely requested "the IUCN Commission on Environmental Law (CEL) to participate in the Work of the Arctic Council, if needed, by making its services and expertise available to the Arctic Council in relation to appropriate legal frameworks… .” Res. 3.037 Arctic legal regime for environmental protection (International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN], 2004). The IUCN’s Commission on Environmental Law has appointed an Arctic Task Force to further discuss governance issues.

  39. 39.

    For a critique, see Bederman (2000).

  40. 40.

    For reviews of the treaty system, see Rothwell (1995, pp. 110–154), Verhoeven, Sands, and Bruce (1992), Bastmeijer (2003).

  41. 41.

    Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic provides an example of covering a segment of high seas extending into the Arctic Ocean but issues of how to influence and control the interests on non-parties arise.

  42. 42.

    For a further discussion, see Koivurova and VanderZwaag (2007, pp. 183–185).

  43. 43.

    For a detailed review of possible guidance to be gained from the Antarctic legal regime in particular, see Nowlan (2001, pp. 40–54).

  44. 44.

    More recent predictions suggest the Arctic may be ice-free during summer by 2030 or even as soon as 2013 (WWF, 2008). Also see the regular updates on ice melting provided by the National Snow and Ice Data Center, available online: http://www-nsidc.colorado/edu/

  45. 45.

    Article 92 provides for the exclusive jurisdiction on the high seas by the flag state except in exceptional cases expressly provided for in international treaties or the Law of the Sea Convention.

  46. 46.

    Article 87 sets out traditional freedoms which also include freedom of overflight, freedom to lay submarine cables and pipelines and freedom to construct artificial islands and other installations.

  47. 47.

    For a critique of the environmental controls established to date, see Avgerinopoutou (2005).

  48. 48.

    Article 123, lists the obligations that "States bordering an enclosed or semi-enclosed sea" must "endeavour, directly or through an appropriate regional organization", to fulfil.

  49. 49.

    See also Harders (1987, pp. 296–298). For a discussion on how states have addressed high sea enclaves in other contexts, see Stokke (2001).

  50. 50.

    For a suggestion that an "international park" be established in the Arctic Ocean, see Dubner (2005). However, the author seems to unrealistically suggest extension of a "no development" zone to baselines of the eight surrounding countries, which assumedly means territorial sea baselines. Sweden and Finland do not have coastlines on the Arctic Ocean.

  51. 51.

    Supra notes 12 and 13.

  52. 52.

    Discussions were organized around the theme "New sustainable uses of the oceans, including the conservation and management of the biological diversity of the seabed in areas beyond national jurisdiction." See Report of the work of the United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea at its fifth meeting (7–11 June 2004) (2004, para. 1).

  53. 53.

    For an overview of the multiple initiatives and venues seeking to address marine biological diversity beyond areas of national jurisdiction, see Oceans and Law of the Sea (n.d.).

  54. 54.

    The Ad Hoc Working Group was first established pursuant to UN General Assembly Resolution 59/24 on Oceans and the Law of the Sea.

  55. 55.

    The meeting summaries are available online: <http://www.un.org/Depts/los/biodiversityworking goup/ biodiversityworkinggroup.htm>.

  56. 56.

    At the second meeting of the Working Group, held 28 April–2 May, 2008, there was broad support for the continuation of the Working Group in order to make further progress on addressing the numerous issues (Joint Statement, 2008, para. 49).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Ocean Law and Governance; Marine & Environmental Law Institute, Dalhousie Law School, Halifax, NS B3H 4H9, Canada

    David L. VanderZwaag

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  1. Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, Lompolotie 10, Rovaniemi, 96500, Finland

    Timo Koivurova

  2. Dept. Social &, Umea University, Umea, 901 87, Sweden

    E. Carina H. Keskitalo

  3. Fac. Law, University of Calgary, University Drive NW. 2500, Calgary, T2N 1N4, Canada

    Nigel Bankes

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VanderZwaag, D.L. (2009). Climate Change and the Future of Arctic Governance: A Slushy Seascape and Hard Questions. In: Koivurova, T., Keskitalo, E., Bankes, N. (eds) Climate Governance in the Arctic. Environment & Policy, vol 50. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9542-9_16

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