Abstract
In this chapter we review the photochemical and thermochemical equilibrium theories for the formation of condensate clouds and photochemical haze in Saturn's upper troposphere and stratosphere and show the relevant observations from ground-based and spacecraft instruments. Based on thermochemical equilibrium models we expect ammonia ice crystals to dominate in the high troposphere. There is very little spectral evidence to confirm this idea. Thanks to a stellar occultation observed by the Cassini VIMS instrument we now have spectral evidence for a hydrocarbon stratospheric haze component, and we still seek evidence for an expected diphosphine stratospheric haze component. The vertical distributions of stratospheric and upper tropospheric hazes have been mapped well with ground-based and Hubble Space telescope data, and Cassini data are beginning to add to this picture. Polar stratospheric aerosols are dark at UV wavelengths and exhibit strong Rayleigh-like polarization which suggests that auroral processes are important for their formation as is the case for the jovian polar stratospheric haze. The cloud and haze structure exhibits a variety of temporal variation, including seasonal change, long-term secular change near the equator, and short-term changes with a complicated latitudinal structure, and still not understood. Cassini instruments, especially the VIMS instrument, show an abundance of small-scale structure (convective clouds) at a pressure near 2 bar.
Keywords
- Optical Depth
- Phase Function
- Convective Cloud
- Polar Vortex
- Equatorial Zone
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Acarreta, J.R., Sánchez-Lavega, A. Vertical cloud structure in Saturn's 1990 Equatorial Storm, Icarus 137, 24–33 (1999).
Atreya S.K., Wong, A.-S. Coupled clouds and chemistry of the giant planets — a case for multiprobes. Space Sci. Rev. 116, 121 –136 (2005).
Atreya S.K., Wong, A.-S., Baines, K.H., Wong, M.H., Owen, T.C. Jupiter's ammonia clouds. localized or ubiquitous? Planet. Space Sci. 53, 498–507 (2005).
Baines, K.H., Carlson, R.W., Kamp, L.W. Fresh ammonia ice clouds in Jupiter: I. Spectroscopic identification, spatial distribution, and dynamical implications. Icarus 159, 74–94 (2002).
Baines K.H., Drossart, P., Momary, T.W., Formisano, V., Griffith, C, Bellucci, G., Bibring, J.-P, Brown, R.H., Buratti, B.J., Capaccioni, F, Cerroni, P., Clark, R.N., Coradini, A., Cruikshank, D.P., Jaumann, R., Langevin, Y., Matson, D.L., McCord, T.B., Mennella, V., Nelson, R.M., Nicholson, P.D., Sicardy, B., Sotin, C. The atmospheres of Saturn and Titan in the near-infrared: First results of Cassini/VIMS. Earth Moon Planets 96, 119–147 (2005).
Baines, K.H., Momary, T.W., Kim J.H., Ross-Serote, M., Showman, A.P, Atreya, S.K., Brown, R.H., Buratti, B.J., Clark, R.N., Nicholson, PD. Saturn's dynamic atmosphere at depth: Physical characteristics, winds, and spatial constraints on trace gas variability near the 3-bar level and their dynamical implications from Cassini-Huygens/VIMS. Poster Presented at Saturn after Cassini-Huygens, Conference, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom, July 28-August 1 (2008).
Baines, K.H., Delitsky, M.L., Momary, T.W., Brown, R.H., Buratti, B.J., Clark, R.N., Nicholson, P.D. Storm clouds on Saturn: Lightning-induced chemistry and associated materials consistent with Cassini/VIMS spectra. Planetary and Space Sci. in press (2009).
Banfield D., Conrath, B.J., Gierasch, P.J., Nicholson, P.D., Mathiews, K. Near-IR spectrophotometry of jovian aerosols: Meridional and vertical distributions. Icarus 134, 11–23 (1998).
Barnet CD., Westphal, J.A., Beebe, R.F, Huber, L.F Hubble Space Telescope observations of the 1990 equatorial disturbance on Saturn: Zonal winds and central meridian albedos. Icarus 100, 499–511 (1992).
Beebe R.F, Barnet, C, Sada, P.V., Murrell, A.S. The onset and growth of the 1990 equatorial disturbance on Saturn. Icarus 95, 163–172 (1992).
Brinkman A.W, McGregor, J. The effect of the ring system on the solar radiation reaching the top of Saturn's atmosphere: Direct radiation. Icarus 38, 479–482 (1979).
Brooke T.Y., Knacke, R.F, Encrenaz, T, Drossart, P., Crisp, D., Feuchtgruber, H. Models of the ISO 3-μm reflection spectrum of Jupiter. Icarus 136, 1–13 (1998).
Dyudina, U.A. Ingersoll, A.P, Ewald, S.P., Vasavada, A.R., West, R.A., Del Genio, A.D., Barbara, J.M., Porco, C.C., Achterberg, R.K., Flasar, F.M., Simon-Miller, A.A., Fletcher, L.N. Dynamics of Saturn's south polar vortex. Science 319, 1801 (2008).
Friedson, A.J., Wong, A.S., Yung, Y.L., Models for polar haze formation in Jupiter's stratosphere. Icarus 158, 389–400 (2002).
Hansen J.E. Multiple scattering of polarized light in planetary atmospheres. Part I. The doubling method. J. Atmos. Sci. 28, 120–125 (1971).
Hansen J.E., Travis, L.D. Light scattering in planetary atmospheres. Space Sci. Rev. 16, 527–610 (1974).
Henyey L.G., Greenstein, J.L. Diffuse radiation in the galaxy. Annales d'Astrophysique 3, 117–137 (1941).
Huffman, D.R., Bohren, C.F Infrared absorption spectra of nonspheri-cal particles treated in the Rayleigh-ellipsoid approximation. In: D. Schuerman (ed) Light Scattering by Irregularly Shaped Particles, Plenum, New York, pp. 103–111 (1980).
Kalogerakis K.S., Marschall, J., Oza, A.U., Engel, PA., Meharchand, R.T, Wong, M.H., The coating hypothesis for ammonia ice particles in Jupiter: Laboratory experiments and optical modeling. Icarus 196, 202–215 (2008).
Karkoschka E. Spectrophotometry of the jovian planets and Titan at 300- to 1000-nm wavelength: The methane spectrum. Icarus 111, 174–192(1994).
Karkoschka, E. Methane, ammonia, and temperature measurements of the jovian planets and Titan from CCD-spectrophotometry. Icarus 133, 134–146 (1998).
Karkoschka E., Tomasko, M.G. Saturn's upper troposphere 1986–1989. Icarus 97, 161–181 (1992).
Karkoschka E., Tomasko, M.G. Saturn's upper atmospheric hazes observed by the Hubble Space Telescope. Icarus 106, 421–441(1993).
Karkoschka E., Tomasko, M. Saturn's vertical and latitudinal cloud structure 1991–2004 from HST imaging in 30 filters. Icarus 179, 195–221(2005).
Kerola D.X., Larson, H.P., Tomasko, M.G. Analysis of the near-IR spectrum of Saturn: A comprehensive radiative transfer model of its middle and upper troposphere. Icarus 127, 190–212 (1997).
Lewis J.S. The clouds of Jupiter and the NH3 — H2O and NH3 — H2S systems. Icarus. 10, 365–378(1969).
Macy, W. Inhomogeneous models of the atmosphere of Saturn, Icarus 32, 328–347 (1977).
Martonchik J.V., Orton, G.S., Appleby, J.F. Optical properties of NH3ice from the far infrared to the near ultraviolet. Appl. Opt. 23, 541–547 (1984).
Muñoz O., Moreno, F., Molina, A., Grodent, D., Gerard, J.C., Dols, V. Study of the vertical structure of Saturn's atmosphere using HST/WFPC2 images. Icarus 169, 413–428 (2004).
Nicholson P., Hedman, M.M., Gierasch, P.J., the Cassini VIMS Team, Probing Saturn's Atmosphere with Procyon, Bull. Amer. Astron. Soc. 38, 555 (2006).
Ortiz, J.L., Moreno, F., Molina, A. Saturn 1991–1993: Clouds and hazes. Icarus 119, 53–66 (1996).
Orton G.S., Yanamandra-Fisher, P. Saturn's temperature field from high-resolution middle-infrared imaging. Science 307, 696–698 (2005).
Pérez Hoyos S., Sánchez-Lavega, A., French, R.G., Rojas, J.F. Saturn's cloud structure and temporal evolution from ten years of Hubble Space Telescope images (1994–2003). Icarus 176, 155–174 (2005).
PérezHoyos S., Sánchez-Lavega, A. On the vertical wind shear of Saturn's equatorial jet at cloud level. Icarus 180, 161–175 (2006a).
Pérez-Hoyos, S., Sánchez-Lavega, A. Solar flux in Saturn's atmosphere: maximum penetration and heating rates in the aerosol and cloud layers”, Icarus, 180, 368–378 (2006b).
PérezHoyos S., Sánchez-Lavega, A., French, R.G. Short-term changes in the belt/zone structure of Saturn's Southern Hemisphere (1996–2004). Astron. Astroph. 460, 641–645 (2006).
Pope S.K., Tomasko, M.G., Williams, M.S., Perry, M.L., Doose, L.R., Smith, PH. Clouds of ammonia ice: Laboratory measurements of the single-scattering properties. Icarus 100, 203–220 (1992).
Pryor, W.R., Hord, C.W. A study of photopolarimeter system UV absorption data on Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune: Implications for Auroral Haze formation. Icarus 91, 161–172 (1991).
Sánchez-Lavega, A. Saturn's great white spots, Chaos 4, 341–353 (1994).
Sánchez Lavega A., Colas, F., Lecacheux, J., Laques, P., Miyazaki, I., Parker, D. The Great white Spot and disturbances in Saturn's equatorial atmosphere during 1990. Nature 353, 397–401 (1991).
Sánchez-Lavega, A., Lecacheux, J., Colas, F., Laques, P. Temporal behavior of cloud morphologies and motions in Saturn's atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res. E10, 18857–18872 (1993).
Sánchez-Lavega, A., Lecacheux, J., Colas, F., Laques, P. Photometry of Saturn's 1990 equatorial disturbance, Icarus 108, 158–168 (1994).
Sánchez-Lavega, A., Hueso, R., Pérez-Hoyos, S., Rojas, J. F., A strong vortex in Saturn's South Pole, Icarus 184, 524–531 (2006).
Sánchez-Lavega, A., Hueso, R., Pérez-Hoyos, S. The three-dimensional structure of Saturn's equatorial jet at cloud level, Icarus 187, 510– 519 (2007).
Smith B.A., Soderblom, L., Batson, R., Bridges, P., Inge, J., Masursky, H., Shoemaker, E., Beebe, R., Boyce, J., Briggs, G., Bunker, A., Collins, S.A., Hansen, C.J., Johnson, TV., Mitchell, J.L., Terrile, R.J., Cook, A.F., Cuzzi, J., Pollack, J.B., Danielson, G.E., Ingersoll, A.P., Davies, M.E., Hunt, G.E., Morrison, D., Owen, T, Sagan, C, Veverka, J., Strom, R., Suomi, V.E. A New Look at the Saturn system: The Voyager 2 images. Science 215, 504–537 (1982).
Stam, D.M., Banfield, D., Gierasch, P.J., Nicholson, P.D., Matthews, K., Near-IR Spectrophotometry of Saturnian Aerosols—Meridional and Vertical Distribution, Icarus 152, 407–422 (2001).
Temma, T, Chanover, N.J., Simon-Miller, A.A., Glenar, D.A., Hillman, J.J., Khuen, D.M. Vertical structure modeling of Saturn's equatorial region using high spectral resolution imaging, Icarus 175, 464–489 (2005).
Tomasko M.G., Doose, L.R., Polarimetry and photometry of Saturn from Pioneer 11: observations and constraints on the distribution and properties of cloud and aerosol particles. Icarus 58, 1–34 (1984).
Tomasko, M.G., West, R.A., Orton, G.S., Tejfel, VG. Clouds and aerosols in Saturn's atmosphere, in T. Gehrels, M.S. Matthews (eds) Saturn, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 150–194 (1984).
Weidenschilling S.J., Lewis, J.S. Atmospheric and cloud structures on the jovian planets. Icarus 20, 465–476 (1973).
West R.A. Spatially resolved methane band photometry of Saturn II. Cloud structure models at four latitudes. Icarus 53, 301–309 (1983).
West, R.A., Smith, PH. Evidence for aggregate particles in the atmospheres of Titan and Jupiter, Icarus 90, 330–333 (1991).
West R.A., Sato, M., Hart, H., Lane, L.A., Hord, C.W., Simmons, K.E., Esposito, L.W, Coffeen, D.L., Pomphrey, R.B. Photometry and polarimetry of Saturn at 2640 and 7500 Å. J. Geophys. Rev. 88, 8679–8697 (1983).
West, R.A., Strobel, D.F., Tomasko, M.G. Clouds, aerosols, and photochemistry in the jovian atmosphere. Icarus 65, 161–217 (1986).
West R.A., Orton, G.S., Draine, B.T., Hubbell, E.A., Infrared absorption features for tetrahedral ammonia ice crystals. Icarus 80, 220–224 (1989).
West, R.A., Baines, K.H., Friedson, A.J., Banfield, D., Ragent, B., Taylor, F.W. Jovian clouds and haze. In: F. Bagenal, T.E. Dowling, W.B. McKinnon (eds) Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2004).
Westphal, J.A., Baum, W.A., Ingersoll, A.P, Barnet, CD., De Jong, E.M., Danielson, G.E. Hubble Space Telescope observations of the 1990 equatorial disturbance on Saturn: Images, albedos, and limb darkening, Icarus 100, 485–498 (1992).
Wong, A.-S., Yung, Y.L., Friedson, A.J. Benzene and haze formation in the polar atmosphere of Jupiter. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30 (2003).
Wong, M., Bjoraker, G., Smith, M. Flasar, D., Nixon, C. Identification of the 10-μm ammonia ice feature on Jupiter. Planet. Space Sci. 52, 385–395 (2004).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
West, R.A., Baines, K.H., Karkoschka, E., Sánchez-Lavega, A. (2009). Clouds and Aerosols in Saturn's Atmosphere. In: Dougherty, M.K., Esposito, L.W., Krimigis, S.M. (eds) Saturn from Cassini-Huygens. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9217-6_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9217-6_7
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-9216-9
Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-9217-6
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)