Skip to main content

Abstract

Nematodes, non-segmented animals ranging between 0.1 mm and several meters in length, are also referred to as round-, eel-, or threadworms because of their usually cylindrical and elongate body shape. They have digestive, reproductive, muscular, and simple excretory and nervous systems but lack circulatory and respiratory systems. Many nematode species are associated with insects and the types of relationship range from phoresis to parasitism and pathogenesis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Appel, A. G., Benson, E. P., Ellenberger, J. M. and Manweiler, S. A. 1993. Laboratory and field evaluations of an entomogenous nematode (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) for German cockroach (Dictyoptera: Blatellidae) control. J. Econ. Entomol. 86, 777–784.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akhurst, R. J. 1990. Safety to nontarget invertebrates of nematodes of economically important pests. In “Safety of Microbial Insecticides,” (M. Laird, L. A. Lacey, and E. W. Davidson, Eds.), pp. 233–240. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bathon, H. 1996. Impact of entomopathogenic nematodes on on-target hosts. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 6, 421–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baur, M. E., Kaya, H. K., Gaugler, R. and Tabashnik, B. 1997a. Effects of adjuvants on entomopathogenic nematode persistence and efficacy against Plutella xylostella. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 7, 513–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baur, M. E., Kaya, H. K. and Tabashnik, B. 1997b. Efficacy of a dehydrated steinernematid nematode against black cutworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 90, 1200–1206.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bedding, R. 1993. Biological control of Sirex noctilio using the nematode Deladenus siricidicola. In “Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insects” (R. Bedding, R. Akhurst and H. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 11–20. CSRIO, East Melbourne, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedding, R., Akhurst, R. and Kaya, H. K. 1993. “Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insects.” CSRIO, East Melbourne, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bednarek, A. and Gaugler, R. 1997. Compatibility of soil amendments with entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Nematol. 29, 220–227.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Begley, J. W. 1990. Efficacy against insects in habitats other than soil. In “Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control” (R. Gaugler and H. K. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 215–321. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broadbent, A. B., and Olthof, Th. H. A. 1995. Foliar application of Steinernema carpocapsae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) to control Liriomyza trifolii (Diptera: Agromyzidae) larvae in chrysanthemums. Environ. Entomol. 24, 431–435.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, I. M. and Gaugler, R. 1997. Temperature and humidity influence emergence and survival of entomopathogenic nematodes. Nematologica 43, 363–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cabanillas, H. E. and Raulston, J. R. 1996. Effects of furrow irrigation on the distribution and infectivity of Steinernema riobravis against corn earworm in corn. Fundam. Appl. Nematol. 19, 273–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. F., Lewis, E. E., Yoder, F. and Gaugler, R. 1995. Entomopathogenic nematode (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) seasonal population dynamics and impact on insect populations in turfgrass. Biol. Control 5, 598–606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. F. and Gaugler, R. 1997. Inter-specific variation in entomopathogenic nematode foraging strategy: dichotomy or variation along a continuum? Fundam. Appl. Nematol. 20, 393–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. F., Lewis, E. E., Yoder, F. and Gaugler, R. 1997. Entomopathogenic nematode (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) spatial distribution in turfgrass. Parasitology 113, 473–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. F., Orza, G., Yoder, F., Lewis, E. and Gaugler, R. 1998. Spatial and temporal distribution of endemic and released entomopathogenic nematode populations in turfgrass. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 86, 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Curran, J. 1993. Post-application biology of entomopathogenic nematodes in soil. In “Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insects” (R. Bedding, R. Akhurst and H. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 67–77. CSRIO, East Melbourne, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, L. W., McCoy, C. W., and Terranova, A. C. 1996. Estimating sample size and persistence of entomogenous nematodes in sandy soils and their efficacy against the larvae of Diaprepes abbreviatus in Florida. J. Nematol. 28, 56–67.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eidt, D. C. and Thurston, G. S. 1995. Physical deterrents to infection by entomopathogenic nematodes in wire worms (Coleoptera: Elateridae) and other soil insects. Can. Entomol. 127, 423–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaugler, R., Campbell, J. F., Selvan, S. and Lewis, E. E. 1992. Large-scale inoculative releases of the entomopathogen Steinernema glaseri: assessment 50 years later. Biol. Control 2, 181–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaugler, R., Wang, Y. and Campbell, J. F. 1994. Aggressive and evasive behaviors in Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) larvae: defenses against entomopathogenic nematode attack. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 64, 193–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Georgis, R. 1990. Formulation and application technology. In “Entomopathogenic nematodes in biological control” (R. Gaugler and H. K. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 153–191. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgis, R. and Gaugler, R. 1991. Predictability in biological control using entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Econ. Entomol. 84, 713–720.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgis, R. and Manweiler, S. A. 1994. Entomopathogenic nematodes: a developing biological control technology. Agric. Zool. Rev. 6, 63–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgis, R., Dunlop, D. B., and Grewal, P. S. 1995. Formulation of entomopathogenic nematodes. In “Biorational Pest Control Agents: Formulation and Delivery” (F. R. Hall and J. W. Barry, Eds.), pp 197–205. ACS Symposium Series No. 595, Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Georgis, R. and Kaya, H. K. 1998. Formulation of entomopathogenic nematodes. In “Formulation of Microbial Biopesticides: Beneficial Microorganisms, Nematodes and Seed Treatments” (H. D. Burges, Ed.), pp 289–308. Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgis, R., Koppenhöfer, A. M., Lacey, L. A., Bélair, G., Duncan, L. W., Grewal, P. S., Samish, M., Tan, L., Torr, P. and Van Tol, R., W. H. M. 2006. Successes and failures in the use of parasitic nematodes for pest control. Biol. Control 38, 103–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glazer, I. 2002. Survival biology. In “Entomopathogenic Nematology“ (R. Gaugler, Ed.), pp 169–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glazer, I., Klein, M., Navon, A. and Nakache, Y. 1992. Comparison of efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes combined with antidesiccants applied by canopy sprays against 3 cotton pest (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 85, 1636–1641.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gouge, 2005. Applications for social insect control. In “Nematodes as Biocontrol Agents.” (P. S. Grewal, R.-U. Ehlers, and D. I. Shapiro-Ilan, Eds.), pp. 317–329. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Grewal, P. S. 2002. Formulation and application technology. In “Entomopathogenic Nematology” (R. Gaugler, Ed.), pp. 265–287. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Grewal, P. S., Selvan, S., and Gaugler, R. 1994. Thermal adaptation of entomopathogenic nematodes: niche breadth for infection, establishment, and reproduction. J. Thermal. Biol. 19, 245–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grewal, P. S., Ehlers, R.-U., and Shapiro-Ilan, D. I. 2005. “Nematodes as Biocontrol Agents.” CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Grewal, P. S., and Peters, A. 2005. Formulation and quality. In “Nematodes as Biocontrol agents.” (P. S. Grewal, R.-U. Ehlers, and D. I. Shapiro-Ilan, Eds.), pp 79–90. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, C. T. 1993. Temperature responses of entomopathogenic nematodes: implications for the success of biological control programmes. In “Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insects” (R. Bedding, R. Akhurst and H. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 115–126. CSRIO, East Melbourne, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hominick, W. R. 2002. Biogeography. In “Entomopathogenic Nematology” (R. Gaugler, Ed.), pp. 115–144. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hominick, W. M., Reid, A. P., Bohan, D. A. and Briscoe, B. R. 1996. Entomopathogenic nematodes: Biodiversity, geographical distribution and the convention on biological diversity. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 6, 317–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hominick, W. R., Briscoe, B. R., del Pino, F. G., Heng, J., Hunt, D. J., Kozodoy, E., Mracek, Z., Nguyen, K. B., Reid, A. P., Spiridonov, S., Stock, P., Sturhan, D., Waturu, C. and Yoshida, M. 1997. Biosystematics of entomopathogenic nematodes: current status, protocols and definitions. J. Helminthol. 71, 271–298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, C. D. 1997. “Suppliers of beneficial organisms in North America,” California Environ. Protection Agency - Dept. Pestic. Regulation, Sacramento, CA. 32 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishibashi, N. 1993. Integrated control of insect pests by Steinernema carpocapsae. In “Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insects” (R. Bedding, R. Akhurst and H. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 105–113. CSRIO, East Melbourne, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaya, H. K. 1990. Soil ecology. In “Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control” (R. Gaugler and H. K. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 93–115. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaya, H. K. 2002. Natural enemies and other antagonists. In “Entomopathogenic Nematology” (R. Gaugler, Ed.), pp. 189–203. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kaya, H. K., Burlando, T. M., Choo, H. Y. and Thurston, G. S. 1995. Integration of entomopathogenic nematodes with Bacillus thuringiensis or pesticidal soap for control of insect pests. Biol. Control 5, 432–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaya, H. K., and Koppenhöfer, A. M. 1996. Effects of microbial and other antagonistic organism and competition on entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 6, 333–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaya, H. K. and Stock, S. P. 1997. Techniques in insect nematology. In “Manual of Techniques in Insect Pathology” (L. Lacey, Ed.), pp. 281–324. Academic Press, London.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kaya, H. K. and Koppenhöfer, A. M. 2004. Biological control of insects and other invertebrates with nematodes. In “Nematology, Advances and Perspectives” (Z. X. Chen, S. Y. Chen and D. W. Dickson, Eds.), pp. 1083–1132. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kaya, H. K., Aguillera, M. M., Alumai, A., Choo, H. Y., de la Torre, M, Fodor, A., Ganguly, S., Hazir, S., Lakatos, T., Pye, A., Wilson, M., Yamanaka, S., Yang, H. and Ehlers. R.-U. 2006. Status of entomopathogenic nematodes and their symbiotic bacteria from selected countries or regions of the world. Biol. Control 38, 134–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, M. G. 1990. Efficacy against soil-inhabiting insect pests. In “Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control” (R. Gaugler and H. K. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 195–214. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, M. G. 1993. Biological control of scarabs with entomopathogenic nematodes. In “Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insects” (R. Bedding, R. Akhurst and H. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 49–57. CSRIO, East Melbourne, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koppenhöfer, A. M., Kaya, H. K. and Taormino, S. 1995. Infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) at different soil depths and moistures. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 65, 193–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koppenhöfer, A. M., Baur, M. E., Stock, S. P., Choo, H. Y., Chinnasri, B. and Kaya, H. K. 1997. Survival of entomopathogenic nematodes within host cadavers in dry soil. App. Soil Ecol. 6, 231–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koppenhöfer, A. M. and Kaya, H. K. 1997. Additive and synergistic interaction between entomopathogenic nematodes and Bacillus thuringiensis for scarab grub control. Biol. Control 8, 131–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koppenhöfer, A. M., Campbell, J. F., Kaya, H. K. and Gaugler, R. 1998. Estimation of entomopathogenic nematode population density in soil by correlation between bait insect mortality and nematode penetration. Fundam. Appl. Nematol. 21, 95–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koppenhöfer, A. M. and Kaya, H. K. 1998. Synergism of imidacloprid and entomopathogenic nematodes: A novel approach to white grub control in turfgrass. J. Econ. Entomol. 91, 618–623.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koppenhöfer, A. M. and Fuzy, E. M. 2003. Ecological characterization of Steinernema scarabaei: a natural pathogen of scarab larvae. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 83, 139–148.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koppenhöfer, A. M. and Grewal, P. S. 2005. Compatibility and interactions with agrochemicals and other biocontrol agents. In “Nematodes as Biocontrol Agents.” CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp 363–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koppenhöfer, A. M. and Fuzy, E. M. 2006. Effect of soil type on infectivity and persistence of the EPNs Steinernema scarabaei, Steinernema glaseri, Heterorhabditis zealandica, and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 92, 11–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levins, R. 1970. Extinction. In “Lectures on mathematics in the life sciences,” Vol. 2 (M. Gerstenhaber, Ed.), pp. 77–107. Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, RI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, E. E. 2002. Behavioural ecology. In “Entomopathogenic nematology” (R. Gaugler, Ed.), pp 205–224. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, E. E., Campbell, J. F., and Gaugler, R. 1998. A conservation approach to using entomopathogenic nematodes in turf and landscapes. In “Conservation biological control” (P. Barbosa, Ed), pp. 235–254. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, E. E., Campbell, J., Griffin, C., Kaya, H. and Peters, A. 2006. Behavioral ecology of EPNs. Biol. Control 38, 66–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mamiya, Y. 1989. Comparison of infectivity of Steinernema kushidai (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) and other steinernematid and heterorhabditid nematodes for three different insects. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 24, 302–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nickle, W. R. 1984. “Plant and Insect Nematodes.” Marcel Dekker, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nickle, W. R. 1991. “Manual of Agricultural Nematology.” Marcel Dekker, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nickle, W. R. and Shapiro, M. 1994. Effects of eight brighteners as solar radiation protectants for Steinernema carpocapsae, All strain. Suppl. J. Nematol. 26, 782–784.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nishimatsu, T. and Jackson, J. J. 1998. Interaction of insecticides, entomopathogenic nematodes, and larvae of the western corn rootworm (Coleoptera; Chrysomelidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 91, 410–418.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parkman, J. P. and Smart, G. C., Jr. 1996. Entomopathogenic nematodes, a case study: Introduction of Steinernema scapterisci in Florida. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 6, 413–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patel, M. N. and Wright, D. J. 1996. The influence of neuroactive pesticides on the behaviour of entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Helminthol. 70, 53–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, A. 1996. The natural host range of Steinernema and Heterorhabditis spp. and their impact on insect populations. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 6, 389–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, A. and Ehlers, R.-U. 1994. Susceptibility of leatherjackets (Tipula paludosa and Tipula oleracea; Tipulidae; Nematocera) to the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema feltiae. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 63, 163–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poinar, G. O., Jr. 1979. “Nematodes for Biological Control of Insects.” CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renn, N. 1998. The efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes for controlling housefly infestations of intensive pig units. Med. Vet. Entomol. 12, 46–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rovesti, L. and Deseö, K. V. 1990. Compatibility of chemical pesticides with the entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema carpocapsae Weiser and S. feltiae Filipjev (Nematoda: Steinernematidae). Nematologica 36, 237–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder, W. J. and Sieburth, P. J. 1997. Impact of surfactants on control of the root weevil Diaprepes abbreviatus larvae with Steinernema riobravis. J. Nematol. 29, 216–219.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Selvan, S., Grewal, P. S., Gaugler, R. and Tomalek, M. 1994. Evaluation of steinernematid nematodes against Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) larvae: species, strains, and rinse after application. J. Econ. Entomol. 87, 605–609.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shah, P. A. and Goettel, M. S. 1999. “Directory of microbial control products and services.” Microbial Control Div., Soc. Invertebr. Pathol., Gainesville, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, D. I., Tylka, G. L. and Lewis, L. C. 1997. Effects of fertilizers on virulence of Steinernema carpocapsae. Appl. Soil Ecol. 3, 27–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro-Ilan, D. I., Lewis, E. E., Behle, R. W., and McGuire, M. R. 2001 Formulation of EPN-infected cadavers. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 78, 17–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro-Ilan, D. I., Lewis, E. E., Tedders, W. L., and Son, Y. 2003. Superior efficacy observed in EPNs applied in infected-host cadavers compared with application in aqueous suspension. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 83, 270–272.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro-Ilan, D. I., Gouge, D. H., Piggott, S. J., Fife, J. P. 2006. Application technology and environmental considerations for use of EPNs in biological control. Biol. Control 38, 124–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smits, P. 1996. Post-application persistence of entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 6, 379–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stark, J. D. 1996. Entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae): toxicity of neem. J. Econ. Entomol. 89, 68–73.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stock, S. P., Griffin, C. T. and Chaerani, R. T. 2004. Morphological and molecular characterisation of Steinernema hermaphroditum n. sp. (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), an entomopathogenic nematode from Indonesia, and its phylogenetic relationships with other members of the genus. Nematology 6, 401–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strong, D. R., Kaya, H. K., Whipple, A. V., Child, A. L., Kraig, S., Bondonno, M. and Maron, J. L. 1996. Entomopathogenic nematodes: natural enemies of root-feeding caterpillars on bush lupine. Oecologia 108, 167–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stuart, R. J. and Gaugler, R. 1994. Patchiness in populations of entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 64, 39–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stuart, R. J., Barbercheck, M. E., Grewal, P. S., Taylor, R. A. J. and Hoy, C. W. 2006. population biology of EPNs: concepts, issues, and models. Biol. Control 38, 80–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thurston, G. S., Kaya, H. K. and Gaugler, R. 1994. Characterizing the enhanced susceptibility of milky disease-infected scarabaeid grubs to entomopathogenic nematodes. Biol. Control 4, 67–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treverrow, N. L. and Bedding, R. A. 1993. Development of a system for the control of the banana weevil borer, Cosmopolites sordidus with entomopathogenic nematodes. In “Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insects” (R. Bedding, R. Akhurst and H. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 41–47. CSRIO, East Melbourne, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., Campbell, J. F. and Gaugler, R. 1995. Infection of entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema glaseri and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora against Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) larvae. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 66, 178–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Womersley, C. Z. 1990. Dehydration survival and anhydrobiotic potential. In “Entomopathogenic nematodes in biological control” (R. Gaugler and H. K. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 117–137. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, D. J., Peters, A., Schroer, S. and Fife, J. P. 2005. Application technology. In “Nematodes as Biocontrol Agents.” (P. S. Grewal, R.-U. Ehlers, and D. I. Shapiro-Ilan, Eds.), pp. 91–106. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Yang H., Zhang, G., Zhang, S. and Jian, H. 1993. Biological control of tree borers (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) in China with the nematode Steinernema carpocapsae. In “Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insects” (R. Bedding, R. Akhurst and H. Kaya, Eds.), pp. 33–40. CSIRO, East Melbourne, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, R. J. and Cranshaw, W. S. 1990. Compatibility of three entomogenous nematodes (Rhabditida) in aqueous solutions of pesticides used in turfgrass maintenance, J. Econ. Entomol. 83, 97–100.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2007 Springer

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Koppenhöfer, A.M. (2007). Nematodes. In: Lacey, L.A., Kaya, H.K. (eds) Field Manual of Techniques in Invertebrate Pathology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5933-9_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics