Skip to main content

The Shape of Continents, Air-Sea Interaction, and the Rising Branch of the Hadley Circulation

  • Chapter

Part of the book series: Advances in Global Change Research ((AGLO,volume 21))

Abstract

This chapter begins with a brief history of Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) research. It then goes on to summarize recent progress in understanding why the ITCZ is locked in the Northern Hemisphere in the eastern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, and how this northward-displaced ITCZ affects the space-time structure of tropical climate variability.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Bartholomew, J.G., and A.J. Herbertson. 1899. In, Buchan, A. (ed.). Atlas of Meteorology. Edinburgh: Royal Geographical Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, E.K.M. 1995. The influence of Hadley circulation intensity changes on extratropical climate in an idealized model. Journal of Atmospheric Science 52: 2006–2024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, P., and S.G.H. Philander. 1994. A coupled ocean-atmosphere instability of relevance to the seasonal cycle. Journal of Atmospheric Science 51: 3627–3648.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, P., L. Ji, and H. Li. 1997. A decadal climate variation in the tropical Atlantic Ocean from thermodynamic air-sea interactions. Nature 385: 516–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charney, J.G. 1971. Tropical cyclogenesis and the formation of the intertropical convergence zone. In, Reid, W.H. (ed.). Mathematical Problems of Geophysical Fluid Dynamics. Providence, Rhode Island: American Mathematics Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chelton, D.B., S.K. Esbensen, M.G. Schlax, N. Thum, M.H. Freilich, F.J. Wentz, C.L. Gentemann, M.J. McPhaden, and P.S. Schoph. 2001. Observations of coupling between surface wind stress and sea surface temperature in the eastern tropical Pacific. Journal of Climate 14:1479–1498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cronin, M.F., N. Bond, C. Fairall, J. Hare, M.J. McPhaden, and R.A. Weiler. 2002. Enhanced oceanic and atmospheric monitoring underway in Eastern Pacific. Eos Trans. American Geophysical Union, 83(19): 205, 210–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deser, C., J.J. Bates, and S. Wahl. 1993. The influence of sea surface temperature on stratiform cloudiness along the equatorial front in the Pacific Ocean. Journal of Climate 6: 1172–1180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dijkstra, H.A., and J.D. Neelin. 1999. Coupled processes and the tropical climatology. Part III: Instabilities of fully coupled climatology. Journal of Climate 12: 1630–1643.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fu, X., and B. Wang. 2001. A coupled modeling study of the seasonal cycle of the Pacific cold tongue, Part I: Simulation and sensitivity experiments. Journal of Climate 14: 756–779.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garreaud, R.D., J. Rutilant, J. Quintana, J. Carrasco, and P. Minnis. 2001. CIMAR-5: A snapshot of the lower troposphere over the subtropical Southeast Pacific. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 82: 2193–2207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giese, B.S., and J.A. Carton. 1994. The seasonal cycle in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. Journal of Climate 7: 1208–1217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, C.T., A. Rosati, and R. Gudgel. 2000. Tropical sensitivity of a coupled model to specified ISCCP low clouds. Journal of Climate 13: 2239–2260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gu, D., and S.G.H. Philander. 1997. Interdecadal climate fluctuations that depend on exchange between the tropics and extratropics. Science 275: 805–807.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gu, G., and C. Zhang. 2002. Westward-propagating synoptic-scale disturbances and the ITCZ. Journal of Atmospheric Science 59: 1062–1075.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halley, E. 1686. A historical account of the trade winds, and monsoons, observable in the seas between and near the Tropicks, with an attempt to assign the phisical cause of the said winds. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 16: 153–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume, H., S.-P. Xie, W.T. Liu, and K. Takeuchi. 2001. Local and remote atmospheric response to tropical instability waves: A global view from the space. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmosphere, 106: 10173–10185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hastenrath, S. 1991. Climate Dynamics of the Tropics. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 488 pp.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Held, I.M., and A.Y. Hou. 1980. Nonlinear axially symmetric circulations in a nearly inviscid atmosphere. Journal of Atmospheric Science 37: 515–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horel, J.D. 1982. On the annual cycle of the tropical Pacific atmosphere and Ocean. Monthly Weather Review, 110: 1863–1878.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hou, A.Y. 1993. The influence of tropical heating displacement on the extratropical climate. Journal of Atmospheric Science 50: 3553–3570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Houghton, R.W., and Y.M. Tourre. 1992. Characteristics of low-frequency sea surface temperature fluctuations in the tropical Atlantic. Journal of Climate 5: 765–771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jin, F.-F., J.D. Neelin, and M. Ghil. 1994. El Niño on the devil’s staircase: Annual subharmonic steps to chaos. Science 264: 70–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, W.S., and B.A. Taft. 1987. Dynamic heights and zonal geostrophic transports in the central tropical Pacific during 1979–84. Journal of Physical Oceanography 17: 97–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimoto, M., and X. Shen. 1997. Climate variability studies using general circulation models. In, Sumi, A. (ed.). The Frontiers of Climate Research II. Center for Climate System Research, University of Tokyo, pp. 91–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, S.A., and D.L. Hartmann. 1993. The seasonal cycle of low stratiform clouds. Journal of Climate 6: 1587–1606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Köppen, W. 1899. Winds over the oceans. In, Buchan, A. (ed.). Atlas of Meteorology. Edinburgh: Royal Geographical Society, Plate 14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kornfield, J., A.F. Hasler, K.J. Hanson, and V.E. Suomi. 1967. Photographic cloud climatology from ESSA III and V computer produced mosaics. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 48: 878–883.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, T., and T.F. Hogan. 1999. The role of the annual-mean climate on seasonal and interannual variability of the tropical Pacific in a coupled GCM. Journal of Climate 12: 780–792.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindzen, R.S., and A.Y. Hou. 1988. Hadley circulation for zonally averaged heating centered off the equator. Journal of Atmospheric Science 45: 2416–2427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, W.T., and X. Xie. 2002. Double intertropical convergence zones—A new look using scatterometer. Geophysical Research Letters 29: 2072, doi:10.1029/2002GL015431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Z., and G. Philander. 2001. Tropical-extratropical oceanic exchange pathways. In, Siedler, G., J. Church, and W.J. Gould (eds.). Ocean Circulation and Climate: Observing and Modeling the Global Ocean. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 247–254.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lu, P., and J.P. McCreary. 1995. Influence of the ITCZ on the flow of the thermocline water from the subtropical to the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Journal of Physical Oceanography 25:3076–3088.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, C.-C., C.R. Mechoso, A.W. Robertson, and A. Arakawa. 1996. Peruvian stratus clouds and the tropical Pacific circulation—A coupled ocean-atmosphere GCM study. Journal of Climate 9: 1635–1645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manabe, S. 1969. Climate and the ocean circulation. Part 2: The atmospheric circulation and the effects of heat transfer by ocean currents. Monthly Weather Review 97: 775–805.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manabe, S., D.G. Hahn, and J.L. Holloway. 1974. The seasonal variation of the tropical circulation as simulated by a global model of the atmosphere. Journal of Atmospheric Science 31: 43–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCaa, J.R., and C.S. Bretherton. 2003. A new parameterization for shallow cumulus convection and its application to marine subtropical cloud-topped boundary layers: Part II: Regional simulations of marine boundary layer clouds. Monthly Weather Review 132: 883–896.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McPhaden, M.J., and D. Zhang. 2002. Slowdown of the meridional overturning circulation in the upper Pacific Ocean. Nature 415: 603–608.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mechoso, CR., A.W. Robertson, and Coauthors. 1995. The seasonal cycle over the tropical Pacific in general circulation models. Monthly Weather Review 123: 2825–2838.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, T.P., and J.M. Wallace. 1992. The annual cycle in equatorial convection and sea surface temperature. Journal of Climate 5: 1140–1156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Möller, F. 1951. Viertel Jahrs Karten des Niederschlags für die Ganze Erde. Petermanns Geograph. Mitt., 95: 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigam, S. 1997. The annual warm to cold phase transition in the eastern equatorial Pacific: Diagnosis of the role of stratus cloud-top cooling. Journal of Climate 10: 2447–2467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nobre, P., and J. Shukla. 1996. Variations of sea surface temperature, wind stress, and rainfall over the tropical Atlantic and South America. Journal of Climate 9: 2464–2479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nonaka, M., and K. Takeuchi. 2001. Tropical subsurface salinity and tritium distributions in the Pacific: Their differences and formation mechanisms. Journal of Physical Oceanography 31: 1388–1395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nonaka, M., S.-P. Xie, and J.P McCreary. 2002. Decadal variations in the subtropical cells and equatorial Pacific SST. Geophysical Research Letters 29: 1116, doi:10.1029/2001GL013676.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, J.R. 1998. Low cloud type over the ocean from surface observations. Part I: Relationship to surface meteorology and the vertical distribution of temperature and moisture. Journal of Climate 11: 369–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Numaguti, A., and Y.-Y. Hayashi. 1991. Behaviors of cumulus activity and the structures of circulations in an aqua-planet model. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 69: 563–579.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okajima, H., S.-P. Xie, and A. Numaguti. 2003. Interhemispheric coherence of tropical climate variability: Effect of climatological ITCZ. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 81: 1371–1386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Okumura, Y., S.-P. Xie, A. Numaguti, and Y. Tanimoto. 2001. Tropical Atlantic air-sea interaction and its influence on the NAO. Geophysical Research Letters 28: 1507–1510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Philander, S.G.H., D. Gu, D. Halpern, G. Lambert, N.-C. Lau, T. Li, and R.C. Pacanowski. 1996. Why the ITCZ is mostly north of the equator. Journal of Climate 9: 2958–2972.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pike, A.C. 1971. Intertropical convergence zone studied with an interacting atmosphere and ocean model. Monthly Weather Review 99: 469–477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raymond, D.J., S.K. Esbensen, C. Paulson, M. Gregg, C.S. Bretherton, W.A. Petersen, R. Cifelli, L.K. Shay, C. Ohlmann, and P. Zuidema. In press. EPIC2001 and the coupled ocean-atmosphere system of the tropical east Pacific. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, R.W., and T.M. Smith. 1994 Improved global sea surface temperature analyses using optimal interpolation. Journal of Climate 7: 929–948.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Small, R.J., S.-P. Xie, Y. Wang, S.K. Esbensen, and D. Vickers. Submitted. Numerical simulation of boundary layer structure and cross-equatorial flow in the eastern Pacific. Journal of Atmospheric Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanimoto, Y., and S.-P. Xie. 2002. Inter-hemispheric decadal variations in SST, surface wind, heat flux and cloud cover over the Atlantic Ocean. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 80: 1199–1219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R.M., S.W. Payne, E.E. Recker, and R.J. Reed. 1979. Structure and properties of synoptic-scale wave disturbances in the intertropical convergence zone of the eastern Atlantic. Journal of Atmospheric Science 36: 53–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Air Force and U.S. Department of Commerce. 1971. Global Atlas of Reflective Cloud Cover, 1967–1970. Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waliser, D.E., and N.E. Graham. 1993. Convective cloud systems and warm-pool surface temperatures: Coupled interactions and self-regulation. Journal of Geophysical Research 98: 12881–12893.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, J.M., T.P. Mitchell, and C. Deser. 1989. The influence of sea surface temperature on surface wind in the eastern equatorial Pacific: Seasonal and interannual variability. Journal of Climate 2: 1492–1499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, B., and Y. Wang. 1999. Dynamics of the ITCZ-equatorial cold tongue complex and causes of the latitudinal asymmetry. Journal of Climate 12: 1830–1847.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C., S.-P. Xie, and J. A. Carton (eds.). In press. Earth Climate: The Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction, Geophysical Monograph. Washington D.C.: American Geophysical Union.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., S.-P. Xie, B. Wang, and H. Xu. Submitted. Large-scale atmospheric forcing by southeast Pacific boundary-layer clouds: A regional model study. Journal of Climate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodruff, S.D., R.J Slutz, R.L. Jenne, and P.M. Steurer. 1987. A comprehensive ocean-atmosphere dataset. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 68: 521–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wyrtki, K., and B. Koblinsky. 1984. Mean water and current structure during the Hawaii to Tahiti shuttle experiment. Journal of Physical Oceanography 14: 242–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, P., and P.A. Arkin. 1996. Analyses of global monthly precipitation using gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical model predictions. Journal of Climate 9: 840–858.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, S.-P. 1994a. Oceanic response to the wind forcing associated with an ITCZ in the northern hemisphere. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans 99: 20393–20402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, S.-P. 1994b: On the genesis of the equatorial annual cycle. Journal of Climate 7: 2008–2013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, S.-P. 1996a. Westward propagation of latitudinal asymmetry in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. Journal of Atmospheric Science 53: 3236–3250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, S.-P. 1996b. Effects of seasonal solar forcing on latitudinal asymmetry of the ITCZ. Journal of Climate 9: 2945–2950.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, S.-P., and S.G.H. Philander. 1994. A coupled ocean-atmosphere model of relevance to the ITCZ in the eastern Pacific. Tellus 46A: 340–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, S.-P., and K. Saito. 2001. Formation and variability of a northerly ITCZ in a hybrid coupled AGCM: Continental forcing and ocean-atmospheric feedback. Journal of Climate 14:1262–1276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, H., Y. Wang, and S.-P. Xie. 2004. Effects of the Andes on eastern Pacific climate: A regional atmospheric model study. Journal of Climate 17: 589–602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, J.-Y., and C.R. Mechoso. 1999. Links between annual variations of Peruvian stratocumulus clouds and of SST in the eastern equatorial Pacific. Journal of Climate 12: 3305–3318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Xie, SP. (2004). The Shape of Continents, Air-Sea Interaction, and the Rising Branch of the Hadley Circulation. In: Diaz, H.F., Bradley, R.S. (eds) The Hadley Circulation: Present, Past and Future. Advances in Global Change Research, vol 21. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-2944-8_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-2944-8_5

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-90-481-6752-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-2944-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics