Abstract
One of the principal reasons why the Second Polish Republic has been severely criticized over the years relates to its perceived treatment of ethnic minorities, who comprised about one-third of her population at any one time. With few exceptions, historians and other commentators have roundly condemned Poland for practising widespread discrimination and persecution of its minorities, thereby consigning them to the status of second-class citizens. In the West, Horak set the tone when he referred to ‘Polish terroristic policies against the national minorities’,1 while Korzec later wrote that Poland installed ‘a reign of terror and oppression’ against the minorities.2 More specifically, the Poles have been accused of opposing the legitimate nationalist aspirations of the Ukrainian minority and failing to devise ‘a consistent programme which might have reconciled them to the Republic’,3 and also of subjecting the Germans to just about every conceivable injustice behind a so-called ‘bleeding frontier’ (blutende Grenze) between Poland and the Reich.4
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Notes
Stephan Horak, Poland and her National Minorities, 1919–39 (Vantage Press, New York, 1961), p. 158.
Pawel Korzec, ‘Antisemitism in Poland as an Intellectual, Social and Political Movement’, in Joshua A. Fishman (ed.), Studies on Polish Jewry, 1919–1939 (Yivo Institute for Jewish Research, New York, 1974), p. 12.
Oskar Halecki, A History of Poland (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1977), p. 298.
Richard Blanke, ‘The German Minority in Inter-War Poland and German Foreign Policy — Some Reconsiderations’, Journal of Contemporary History 25 (1990), No. 1, pp. 87–102. His Orphans of Versailles. The Germans in Western Poland, 1918–1939 (University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, 1993) is tendentious.
Point made by Stefan Kieniewicz, who is himself Jewish, in ‘Polish Society and the Jewish Problem in the nineteenth century’, in Norman Davies and Antony Polonsky (eds), The Jews in Eastern Poland and the USSR, 1939–1946 (Macmillan, London, 1991), p. 70.
For example, Lucy Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews (Penguin, London, 1975), pp. 472 ff.;
Shmuel Almog, Nationalism and Antisemitism in Modern Europe, 1815–1945 (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1990), p. 107.
Ezra Mendelsohn, ‘Jewish Historiography on Polish Jewry in the Interwar Period’, Polin, 8 (1994), pp. 4–5.
Joseph Marcus, Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland, 1919–1939 (Mouton, New York, 1983), p. 8.
Yisrael Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 1939–1943. Ghetto, Underground, Revolt (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1982), p. xvi.
Celia S. Heller, On the Edge of Destruction. Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars (Columbia University Press, New York, 1977), pp. 3, 13.
Ezra Mendelsohn, Zionism in Poland. The Formative Years, 1915–1926 (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1981), p. 1.
Adam Żółtowski, Border of Europe. A Study of the Polish Eastern Provinces (Hollis & Carter, London, 1950), pp. 323–4; Horak, Poland and her National Minorities p. 215.
R. F. Leslie (ed.), The History of Poland since 1863 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983), pp. 138, 148.
For example, Zanna Kormanowa (ed.), Historia Polski, 1864–1945 (Warsaw, 1952). Among those who helped write school history textbooks in similar vein were the later well-known historians and Communists Stefan Kieniewicz, Józef Gierowski and Roman Wapinski. See Polin 4 (1989), pp. 409–10
and Antony Polonsky’s remarks in Timothy Wiles (ed.), Poland Between the Wars, 1918–1939 (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1989), p. 3 ff.
For example, Marian M. Drozdowski, ‘The National Minorities in Poland in 1918–1939’, Acta Poloniae Historica, 22 (1970), pp. 226–51.
For example, Andrzej Micewski, Z geografii politycznej II Rzeczypospolitej (Warsaw, 1964)
and Andrzej Chojnowski, Koncepcje polityki narodowoś ciowej rządow polskich w latach 1921–39 (Wrocław, 1979).
Jerzy Tomaszewski, Rzeczpospolita wielu narodó w (Warsaw, 1985), and his Ojczyzna nie tylko Polaków. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce w latach 1918–1939 (Warsaw, 1985);
Andrzej Chojnowski, ‘The Jewish Community of the Second Republic in Polish Historiography of the 1980s’, Polin, 1 (1986), pp. 288–99.
Jozef Lewandowski, ‘History and Myth: Pinsk, April 1919’, Polin, 2 (1987), p. 67.
Henri Rollet, La Pologne au XXe Siecle (Pedone, Paris, 1985), p. 146.
For Jewish figures, see Joseph Lichten, ‘Notes on the Assimilation and Acculturation of Jews in Poland, 1863–1943’, in Chimen Abramsky, Maciej Jachimczyk and Antony Polonsky (eds), Chimen Abramsky, Maciej Jachimczyk and Antony Polonsky (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1986), p. 21, and Mendelsohn, Zionism in Poland p. 5.
Zbigniew Landau and Jerzy Tomaszewski, The Polish Economy in the Twentieth Century (Routledge, London, 1985), p. 115. The Jewish population in 1939 was 3,474,000.
Wladyslaw T. Bartoszewski and Antony Polonsky (eds), The Jews in Warsaw. A History (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1991), pp. 2, 35.
More statistical information in Edward D. Wynot, Warsaw Between the World Wars. Profile of a Capital City in a Developing Land, 1918–1939 (East European Monographs, Boulder, Colorado, 1983), pp. 106–7, 307. n. 4.
See also Stephen D. Corrsin, Warsaw Before the First World War. Poles and Jews in the Third City of the Russian Empire, 1880–1914 (East European Monographs, Boulder, Colorado, 1989).
Czeslaw Brzoza, ‘The Jewish Press in Krakow (1918–1939)’, Polin, 7 (1992), p. 134.
Wieslaw Puś, ‘The Development of the City of Łódz (1820–1939)’, Polin, 6 (1991), p. 16;
Julian K. Janczak, ‘The National Structure of the Population in Lodz in the Years 1820–1939’, Polin 6 (1991), p. 25, gives 35 per cent.
Stanislaus A. Blejwas, Realism in Polish Politics. Warsaw Positivism and National Survival in Nineteenth Century Poland; Adam Bromke, Poland’s Politics. Idealism versus Realism (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1967);
Adam Bromke, The Meaning and Uses of Polish History (East European Monographs, Boulder, Colorado, 1987).
Piotr S. Wandycz, The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795–1918 (University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1974), pp. 277 ff., 319 ff.
Brian A. Porter, ‘Who is a Pole and Where is Poland? Territory and Nation in the Rhetoric of Polish National Democracy before 1905’, Slavic Review, 51 (1992), No. 4, pp. 639–53;
Piotr Wandycz, ‘Poland’s Place in Europe in the Concepts of Piłsudski and Dmowski’, East European Politics and Societies, 4 (1990), No. 3, pp. 451–68.
Stefan Kieniewicz, The Emancipation of the Polish Peasantry (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1969), pp. 174 ff.;
Peter Brock, Nationalism and Populism in Partitioned Poland. Selected Essays (Orbis Books, London, 1968), p. 17.
Kieniewicz in Davies and Polonsky (eds), Jews, p. 75; Ezra Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe Between the World Wars (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1983), p. 20.
Joseph Goldstein, ‘The Beginnings of the Zionist Movement in Congress Poland: the victory of the Hasidim over the Zionists?’, Polin, 5 (1990), pp. 114–30;Piotr Wróbel, ‘The First World War: the Twilight of Jewish Warsaw’, in Bartoszewski and Polonsky (eds), Jews of Warsaw pp. 252–3.
Wladysłlaw T. Bartoszewski, ‘Poles and Jews as the “other”’, Polin, 4 (1989), pp. 6–17;
and Rafael Scharf’s comments in Antony Polonsky (ed.), ‘My Brother’s Keeper?’. Recent Polish Debates on the Holocaust (Routledge, London, 1990), pp. 191 ff.
Alvin M. Fountain, Roman Dmowski. Party, Tactics, Ideology 1895–1907 (East European Monographs, Boulder, Colorado, 1980), pp. 158–71;
Andrzej Micewski, Roman Dmowski (Warsaw, 1971);
Roman Wapiński, Roman Dmowski (Lublin, 1988). Both of the latter are Communist-slanted and otherwise unsatisfactory.
Nedim Ögelman, ‘Ethnicity, Demography and Migration in the Evolution of the Polish Nation-State’, The Polish Review, 40 (1995), No. 2, pp. 159–79.
Edward Chmielewski, The Polish Question in the Russian State Duma (University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, 1970), pp. 20–32, 33–81, 161–69.
Good coverage in Lucjan Blit, The Origins of Polish Socialism. The History and Ideas of the First Polish Socialist Party, 1875–1886 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1971);
Robert Blobaum, Feliks Dzierzyń ski and the SDKPiL. A Study of the Origins of Polish Communism (East European Monographs, Boulder, Colorado, 1984);
Robert Blobaum, Rewolucja: Russian Poland, 1904–1907 (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1995).
Piotr Wandycz, ‘Polish Federalism 1919–20 and its Historical Antecedents’, East European Quarterly 4 (1970), No. 1, pp. 25 ff., 35–6;
M. K. Dziewanowski, ‘Joseph Piłsudski, 1867–1967’, East European Quarterly, 2 (1969), No. 1, p. 378.
Further details in M. K. Dziewanowski, Josef Piłsudski. A European Federalist, 1918–1922 (Hoover Institution Press, Stanford, 1969).
Piłsudski reaffirmed this outlook on several occasions just after the end of the First World War — for example, before the Byelorussian National Council in Minsk on 19 September 1919, as reported by Wacław Jędrzejewicz, Piłsudski. A Life for Poland (Hippocrene Books, New York, 1982), p. 93.
See also Przemysłlaw Hauser, ‘Józef Piłsudski’s Views on the Territorial Shape of the Polish State and His Endeavours to Put them into Effect in 1918–1921’, Polish Western Affairs, 33 (1992), No. 2, pp. 235–49.
Alexander J. Groth, ‘Dmowski, Piłsudski and Ethnic Conflict in pre-1939 Poland’, Canadian Slavic Studies, 3 (1969), No. 1, pp. 85–8.
As made clear in Neal Pease, ‘The “Unpardonable Insult ”: the Wawel Incident of 1937 and Church-State Relations in Poland’, Catholic Historical Review, 77 (1991), No. 3, pp. 423–34;
and Edward D. Wynot, ‘The Catholic Church and the Polish State, 1935–1939’, Journal of Church and State, 15 (1973), pp. 223–40.
Tytus Komarnicki, The Rebirth of the Polish Republic. A Study in the Diplomatic History of Europe, 1914–1920 (Heinemann, London, 1957), pp. 41–8, 91–7, 147–52, 156 ff., 201–14;
Hans Roos, A History of Modern Poland (Eyre & Spottiswoode, London, 1966), pp. 15–46.
Egmont Zechlin, Die deutsche Politik und die Juden im Ersten Weltkrieg (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969), pp. 119–33;
Frank Golczewski, Polnisch-Jüdische Beziehungen 1881–1922. Eine Studie zur Geschichte des Antisemitismus in Osteuropa (Steiner, Wiesbaden, 1981), pp. 121–80.
Jerzy Holzer, ‘Polish Political Parties and Antisemitism’, Polin, 8 (1994), p. 196.
Eugene C. Black, ‘Lucien Wolf and the Making of Poland: Paris, 1919’, Polin 2 (1987), pp. 5–36;
Mark Levene, War; Jews and the New Europe. The Diplomacy of Lucien Wolf 1914–1919 (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1992);
Mark Levene, ‘Britain, a British Jew, and Jewish Relations with the New Poland: the Making of the Polish Minorities Treaty of 1919’, Polin, 8 (1994), pp. 14–41.
Wiktor Sukiennicki, East-Central Europe during World War L From Foreign Domination to National Independence (East European Monographs, Boulder, Colorado, 1984), vol. 2, p. 895;
George J. Lerski, ‘Dmowski, Paderewski and American Jews’, Polin, 2 (1987), p. 95.
Paul Latawski, ‘The Dmowski—Namier Feud, 1915–1918’, Polin, 2 (1987), pp. 38 ff. Namier was born Bernstein vel Niemirowski, which in 1910 he changed to Bernstein-Naymier, and to Namier in 1913, when he became a British citizen (Polin, 5, 1990, p. 304).
Further details in Julia Namier, Louis Namier. A Biography (London, 1971).
Black, ‘Lucien Wolf’, p. 23; J. Headlam-Morley, A Memoir of the Paris Peace Conference 1919 (London, 1972).
‘The Times’ 8 February 1919, article entitled, ‘The Pogroms in Poland’, provides but one example. Cohen’s reports, which were widely circulated in the American press, seriously damaged Poland’s reputation, as noted in Piotr S. Wandycz, The United States and Poland (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1980), pp. 160–5.
See also Israel Cohen, ‘My Mission to Poland, 1918–19’, Jewish Social Studies, 3 (1951), No. 3, pp. 149–72, and his Travels in Jewry (London, 1952).
Levene, ‘Britain, a British Jew’, pp. 15–16, 30; Patrick B. Finney, ‘ “An Evil for All Concerned ”: Great Britain and Minority Protection after 1919’, Journal of Contemporary History, 30 (1995), No. 3, pp. 533–51.
Interesting insights in Andrzej Kapiszewski (ed.), Hugh Gibson and a Controversy over Polish-Jewish Relations after World War L A Documentary History (Jagiellonian University Press, Krakow, 1991). Gibson was the first American minister appointed to the new Polish Republic, in April 1919.
Harry M. Rabinowicz, The Legacy of Polish Jewry. A History of Polish Jews in the Inter-war Years, 1919–1939 (Thomas Yoseloff, New York, 1965), p. 31.
Lewandowski, ‘History and Myth’, pp. 50–72; Jerzy Tomaszewski, ‘Pińsk, Saturday 5 April 1919’, Polin, 1 (1986), pp. 227–51. Rabinowicz, Legacy of Polish Jewry p. 38, refers to 110 pogroms in November 1918 alone, but without supporting evidence.
Wandycz, United States and Poland, pp. 166 ff.; Norman Davies, ‘Ethnic Diversity in Twentieth Century Poland’, Polin, 4 (1989), p. 149.
Norman Davies, White Eagle, Red Star. The Polish-Soviet War, 1919–20 (Macdonald, London, 1972), pp. 47–8.
W. F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson, O. Halecki, R. Dyboski (eds), The Cambridge History of Poland. Volume 2: From Augustus II to Piłsudski (1697–1935) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1951), pp. 505 ff.;
Richard M. Watt, Bitter Glory. Poland and Its Fate, 1918 to 1919 (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1979), p. 78.
David Engel, In the Shadow of Auschwitz. The Polish Government-in-Exile and the Jews, 1939–1942 (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1987), p. 20.
Przemyslaw Hauser, ‘The German Minority in Poland in the Years 1918–1939’, Polish Western Affairs 32 (1991), No. 2, pp. 13–14, 24; Watt, Bitter Glory p. 174;
Karol Fiedor, ‘The Attitude of German Right-Wing Organisations to Poland in the Years 1918–33’, Polish Western Affairs, 14 (1973), No. 2, pp. 247–69.
Horak, Poland and her National Minorities pp. 50–5; Rose Bailly, A City Fights for Freedom. The Rising of Lvov in 1918–1919 (London, 1956).
Jerzy Krasuski, ‘The Key Points of Polish—German Relations up to 1939’, Polish Western Affairs 33 (1992), No. 2, pp. 302 ff.;
and Gerhard Wagner, Deutschland und der polnisch-sowjetische Krieg 1920 (Steiner, Wiesbaden, 1979).
Jerzy Sobczak, ‘The Weimar Republic’s Propaganda Concerning the Plebiscites in Warnia and Mazuria’, Polish Western Affairs, 13 (1972), No. 2, pp. 334–55.
Some background in Joachim Rogall, Die Deutschen im Posener Land und in Mittelpolen (Langen Müller, Munich, 1993);
Thomas Urban, Deutsche in Polen. Geschichte und Gegenwart einer Minderheit (Beck, Munich, 1993).
Janczak, ‘The National Structure’, pp. 25 f.; Danuta Berlińska, ‘The German Minority in Opole, Silesia’, Polish Western Affairs, 32 (1991), No. 2, pp. 39–52.
Alexander J. Motyl, ‘Ukrainian Nationalist Political Violence in Inter-War Poland (1921–1939)’, East European Quarterly, 19 (1985), No. 1, pp. 45–55;
fuller coverage in Alexander J. Motyl, The Turn to the Right. The Ideological Origins and Development of Ukrainian Nationalism, 1919–1929 (East European Monographs, Boulder, Colorado, 1980).
Somewhat bitterly discussed in Michael Palij, The Ukrainian-Polish Defensive Alliance, 1919–1921. An Aspect of the Ukrainian Revolution (Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, Toronto, 1995), passim.
Bohdan Budurowycz, ‘Poland and the Ukrainian Problem, 1921–1939’, Canadian Slavic Papers 25 (1983), No. 4, pp. 477 ff.
See also Stanisłlaw Skrzypek, The Problem of Eastern Galicia (Polish Association for the South-Eastern Provinces, London, 1948)
and Taras Hunczak (ed.), The Ukrainian Revolution. Documents, 1919–1921 (Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the United States, New York, 1984).
Drozdowski, ‘National Minorities’, p. 233. Further details in Eugeniusz Koko, Wolni z wolnymi. PPS wobec kwestii ukraiń skiej w latach 1918–1925. (Gdańsk University Press, Gdańsk, 1991).
Drozdowski, ‘National Minorities’, pp. 242 ff.; Horak, Poland and her National Minorities, pp. 171 ff.; Nicholas P. Vakar, Belorussia. The Making of a Nation (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1956).
Highly critical of Polish policy is the study by the Polish Communist, Aleksander Bergman, Sprawy bialoruskie w II Rzeczpospolitej (PWN, Warsaw, 1984).
Jaff Schatz, The Generation. The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Communists of Poland (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1991), pp. 95–103;
Tadeusz Szafar, ‘The Origins of the Communist Party in Poland, 1918–1921’, in Ivo Banac (ed.), The Effects of World War I. The Class War after the Great War. The Rise of Communist Parties in East Central Europe, 1918–1921 (East European Monographs, Boulder, Colorado, 1983), pp. 35 f.;
Jan B. de Weydenthal, The Communists of Poland. An Historical Outline (Hoover Institution Press, Stanford, 1978), pp. 18 f., 25;
Moshe Mishkinsky, ‘The Communist Party of Poland and the Jews’, in Yisrael Gutman, Ezra Mendelsohn, Jehuda Reinharz and Chone Shmeruk (eds), The Jews of Poland Between Two World Wars (University Press of New England, Hanover and London, 1989), pp. 56–74.
Good analysis in Bernard K. Johnpoll, The Politics of Futility. The General Jewish Workers’ Bund of Poland, 1917–1943 (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1967). See also Jerzy Holzer, ‘Relations between Polish and Jewish Left-wing Groups in interwar Poland’, in Abramsky et al., Jews in Poland pp. 144 f.
Szafar, ‘The Origins of the Communist Party in Poland’, pp. 9 ff., 18 ff.; Adam Zamoyski, The Polish Way. A Thousand-Year History of the Poles and their Culture (John Murray, London, 1987), pp. 345–7;
M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland. An Outline of History (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1976), pp. 88–95.
Rabinowicz, Legacy of Polish Jewry, pp. 217 f. See also Davies, White Eagle, pp. 163, 188–225, and Adam Zamoyski, The Battle for the Marshlands (East European Monographs, Boulder, Colorado, 1981), pp. 125–40.
Heller, Edge of Destruction, p. 82; Norman Davies, Heart of Europe. A Short History of Poland (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1984), p. 144.
W. F. Reddaway, Marshal Piłsudski (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1939), p. 140.
Groth, ‘Dmowski, Piłsudski’, pp. 83–7. See also Anna Landau-Czajka, ‘The Image of the Jew in the Catholic Press during the Second Republic’, Polin 8 (1994), pp. 146–75, especially pp. 155 ff.
and Franciszek Adamski, ‘The Jewish Question in Polish Religious Periodicals in the Second Republic. The Case of the Przeglgd katolicki’, Polin, 8 (1994), p. 137.
Holzer in Abramsky et al.,Jews in Poland, p. 202; Norman Davies, God’s Playground. A History of Poland. Volume II: 1795 to the Present (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1981), p. 262.
Daniel Stone, ‘Polish Diplomacy and the American Jewish Community between the Wars’, Polin, 2 (1987), p. 76;
Antony Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921–1939. The Crisis of Constitutional Government (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1972), p. 92.
David Engel, ‘Works in Hebrew on the History of the Jews in inter-war Poland’, Polin, 4 (1989), p. 429.
M. K. Dziewanowski, Poland in the 20th Century (Columbia University Press, New York, 1977), p. 266, n. 7.
Marian Fuks, Prasa Żydowska w Warszawie 1823–1939 (PWN, Warsaw, 1979), pp. 159–293;
Andrzej Paczkowski, ‘The Jewish Press in the Political Life of the Second Republic’, Polin, 8 (1994), pp. 176–93.
N. Eck, ‘The Educational Institutions of Polish Jewry (1921–1934)’, Jewish Social Studies, 9 (1947), No. 1, pp. 3–32.
Szymon Rudnicki, ‘From “Numerus Clausus” to “Numerus Nullus”’, Polin 2 (1987), pp. 248 ff. For example, 42.5 per cent of students at the Jan Kazimierz University in Lwów in session 1922–3 were Jewish.
Raphael Mahler, ‘Jews in Public Service and the Liberal Professions in Poland, 1918–1939’, Jewish Social Studies 6 (1944), No. 4, pp. 291, 294–305. In 1921 the number of Jews employed in the public services and the liberal professions was 40,560.
Jacek M. Majchrowski, ‘Some Observations on the Situation of the Jewish Minority in Poland during the Years 1918–1939’, Polin, 3 (1988), p. 307;
B. Garncarska-Kadary, ‘Some Aspects of the Life of the Jewish Proletariat in Poland during the Interwar Period’, Polin, 8 (1994), pp. 238–55.
Paweł Korzec, ‘Das Abkommen zwischen der Regierung Grabski and der jüdischen Parlamentsvertretung’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 20 (1972), No. 3, pp. 331–66; Mendelsohn, Zionism in Poland pp. 300–8;
Edward D. Wynot, ‘Polish—Jewish Relations, 1918–1939: An Overview’, in Dennis J. Dunn (ed.), Religion and Nationalism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (Lynne Rienner, Boulder, Colorado, 1987), pp. 24 f.
Watt, Bitter Glory, pp. 359 ff.; Polonsky (ed.), ‘My Brother’s Keeper?’, p. 63. Jewish self-imposed isolation in Poland is a recurrent theme in Theo Richmond, Konin. A Quest (Cape, London, 1995).
Laurence Weinbaum, A Marriage of Convenience. The New Zionist Organisation and the Polish Government, 1936–1939 (Columbia University Press, New York, 1993);
Howard Rosenblum, ‘Promoting an International Conference to Solve the Jewish Problem: the New Zionist Organisation’s Alliance with Poland, 1938–1939’, The Slavonic and East European Review, 69 (1991), No. 3, pp. 478–501;
Jerzy Tomaszewski, ‘Vladimir Jabotinsky’s Talks with Representatives of the Polish Government’, Polin, 3 (1988), pp. 276–93.
The Marxist/Communist view is expressed in J. Tomicki (ed.), Polska Odrodzona, 1918–1939 (Warsaw, 1982).
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Stachura, P.D. (1998). National Identity and the Ethnic Minorities in Early Inter-War Poland. In: Stachura, P.D. (eds) Poland between the Wars, 1918–1939. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-26942-6_4
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