Abstract
The expeditions from western Europe to recover Jerusalem between 1188 and 1192 reforged the ideology and practice of crusading, casting the past in a new light and the future in new directions. Failure to achieve their ultimate goal ensured that subsidium Terrae sanctae — assistance for the Holy Land — remained prominent in contemporary religious and political rhetoric. Diverse mechanisms of thought, organization and action coalesced into recognizable patterns of belief, argument, aspiration and strategy sustained by distinctive legal, ritual and liturgical customs. Funding, recruitment and preaching developed in ways that flowed from the exigencies and experiences of the 1190s rather than the 1090s: clerical taxation; vow redemptions; armies paid by central funds; the use of sea transport; central control of regional preaching campaigns. Built on the disparate practices and habits of the previous century, crusading was fashioned to suit changing religious, ecclesiastical and political objectives.
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Notes
For the background to Innocent III’s 1215 decree Omnis utriusque sexus enjoining annual Confession, see A. Murray, ‘Confession before 1215’, TRHS, 6th ser., iii (1993), pp. 51–81.
For the Inquisition, see H. C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition (London 1900–01).
For these developments, Brundage, Medieval Law and the Crusader; M. Purcell, Papal Crusading Policy 1244–91 (Leiden 1975); Mayer, Crusades, pp. 196–7; Riley-Smith, The Crusades, esp. chs 6, 7;
S. Lloyd, ‘The Crusading Movement 1096–1274’, Illustrated History of the Crusades, pp. 34–65; Riley-Smith, What Were the Crusades?; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, chs. 3, 4, 7, 8; S. Lloyd, English Society and the Crusade 1216–1307 (Oxford 1988) esp. chs. 1, 2. J. Richard, ‘1187, Point de depart pour une nouvelle forme de la croisade’, Horns of Hattin, pp. 250–60. For the development of the financial and administrative structures,
W. R. Lunt, Papal Revenues in the Middle Ages (New York 1965).
De profectione Danorum in Hierosolymam, Scriptores Minores Historiae Danicae medii aevi, ed. M. C. Gertz (reprint, Copenhagen 1970), ii, 457–92.
Albert von Beham und Regesten Pabst Innocenz IV, ed. C. Höfler (Stuttgart 1847) pp 16–17.
For Lincoln 1217, T. Wright, Political Songs of England (Camden Society 1839), pp. 22–3; for Lewes and Evesham 1264–65,
William of Rishanger, Chronicle, ed. J. O. Halliwell (Camden Society 1840), pp. 31, 46; for the Russian Crusade of 1240–42,
E. Christiansen, Northern Crusades (London 1980), pp. 126–30; for southern France, in general
M. Roquebert, L’Epopée Cathare (Paris 1970–86); for papal wars in Italy,
N. Housley, The Italian Crusades (Oxford 1982);
J. V. A. Fine, The Bosnian Church (London 1975), pp. 137–55 for Bosnia. For the rest, the general works of Mayer, Riley-Smith, etc.
Registrum Episcopatus Aberdonensis (Spalding & Maitland Clubs, 1845), ii, 15; quoted in A. Macquarrie, Scotland and the Crusades 1095–1560 (Edinburgh 1985). p. 41.
E. Riant, Pèlerinages des Scandinaves en Terre Sainte (Paris 1865). p. 398.
Marino Sanudo Torsello’s works in J. Bongars, Gesta Dei per Francos (Hanau 1611), ii, 293, 305;
F. Kunstmann, ‘Studien über Marino Sanudo’, Abhandlungen der historische Classe der Konigliche bayerischen Akademic der Wissenschaften, vii (1855), esp. pp. 766–7, 770, 772–3, 784–6, 799, 803, 809; C. J. Tyerman, ‘The Holy Land and the Crusades’, Crusade and Settlement, pp. 103–12;
C. J. Tyerman, ‘Marino Sanudo Torsello and the Lost Crusade’. TRHS, 5th ser., 32 (1982). pp. 57–73.
Matthew Paris, Chronica majora, ed. H. R. Luard, RS (London 1872–84), iii, 287–8, 373–4; iv, 9, 133–4; v, 67, 73–4, 201; for his moderating his attack on the Friars and vow redemptions, Historia Anglorum, ed. F. Madden, RS (London 1866–69), iii, 51–2;
C. Tyerman, ‘Some English Evidence of Attitudes to Crusading in the Thirteenth Century’, Thirteenth Century England, i, ed. P. R. Coss and S. D. Lloyd (Woodbridge 1986), pp. 168–74, esp. pp. 169–70.
Henry of Livonia, Chronicon Livoniae, ed. L. Arbusow and A. Bauer (Hanover 1955), pp. 12 (and n. 8), 20, 23, 29, 31, 34, 37, 50, 57, 100, 141; for Marian association, pp. 92, 132; and Christiansen, Northern Crusades, pp. 90–1.
In general, H. Roscher, Papst Innocenz III und die Kreuzzüge (Göttingen 1969) and n. 3 above; E. T. Kennan, ‘Innocent III and the first Political Crusade’, Traditio, 27 (1971); E. T. Kennan, ‘Innocent III, Gregory IX and Political Crusades; A Study in the Disintegration of Papal Power’, Reform and Authority in the Medieval and Reformation Church, ed. G. F. Lytle (Washington 1981), pp. 15–35. For Quia Maior, G. Tangl, Studien zum Register Innocenz III (Weimar 1929), pp. 88–97; for Ad Liberandam, N. P. Tanner, Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils (London and Washington 1990), pp. 267–71.
E. T. Kennan, ‘Innocent III and the first Political Crusade’, Traditio, 27 (1971);
E. T. Kennan, ‘Innocent III, Gregory IX and Political Crusades; A Study in the Disintegration of Papal Power’, Reform and Authority in the Medieval and Reformation Church, ed. G. F. Lytle (Washington 1981), pp. 15–35. For Quia Maior, G. Tangl, Studien zum Register Innocenz III (Weimar 1929), pp. 88–97; for Ad Liberandam,
N. P. Tanner, Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils (London and Washington 1990), pp. 267–71.
Cf. a number of anecdotes of Caesarius of Heisterbach of the early thirteenth century discussed by P. Throop, Criticism of the Crusade (Amsterdam 1940), p. 91.
The Letters of Pope Innocent III (1198–1216) concerning England and Wales, ed. C. R. and M. G. Cheney (Oxford 1976), nos 171–2.
Clement VI, Lettres closes, patentes et curiales se rapportant à la France, ed. E. Déprez et al. (Paris 1901–61), no. 433 (cf. Gregory XI’s ‘customary indulgences’ against the Turks in 1373, Lettres sécrètes et curiales intéréssant les pays autres que la France, ed. G. Mollat (Paris 1962–65), nos 1610–13,1744, 1940);
Clement VI, Lettres closes, patentes et curiales intéréssant les pays autres que la France, ed. E. Deprez and G. Mollat (Paris 1960–61), no. 847. For the privilege of choosing a confessor, see the 1352 grant to
Henry of Grosmont, Calender of Papal Registers, ed. W. T. Bliss et al. (London 1893–1960), iii, 459. For other variants on the Innocentan theme,
N. Housley, The Avignon Papacy and the Crusades (Oxford 1986), Appendix III, pp. 310–11.
Housley, Later Crusades, pp. 308–12; J. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels (Liverpool 1979); Riley-Smith, The Crusades, p. 237.
F. H. Russell, The Just War in the Middle Ages (Cambridge 1975), p. 196 and, in general, pp. 195–212; Brundage, Canon Law and the Crusader, p. 82.
Etienne de Bourbon, Anecdotes historiques, légendes et apologues, ed. A. Lecoy de la Marche (Paris 1877), pp. 36–7 for an anecdote that depended for its effect on the existence of the forty-day term; Hostiensis, Suma Aurea (Venice 1574), pp. 1141–2; Russell, Just War, p. 205.
Honoré Bonet, Tree of Battles, ed. G. W. Coopland (Liverpool 1949), Pt IV, ch. ii; pp. 126–8. For comment on the lack of a Canon Law treatise De crucesignatis, Brundage, Canon Law and the Crusader, p. 190.
On taking the Cross, see above, pp. 78–83; on vows, Brundage, Canon Law and the Crusader, pp. 30–114; M. Villey, ‘L’ idee de la croisade chez les juristes du môyen age’, Relazioni del X Congresso internazionale di scienzo storiche, iii (1955), pp. 581–8; Russell, Just War, pp. 125 and n. 128; 208, 288–9. On the power of the vow in a public context to resolve clashes of obligation, see Robert Curzon’s opinion, discussed by J. W. Baldwin, Masters, Princes and Merchants: The Social Views of Peter the Chanter and his Circle (Princeton 1970), i, 211; ii, 148–8.
J. Brundage, ‘The crusader’s wife: a canonistic quandary’, Studia Gratiana, xii (1967), 425–41.
Alexander IV, Registres, ed. C. Bourel de la Roncière et al. (Paris 1902–53), nos 1578,3063–9; for comparable privileges of
Alexander IV, Registres, ed. C. Bourel de la Roncière et al. (Paris 1902–53), nos 1578,3063–9; for comparable privileges of Innocent IV, Registres, ed. E. Berger (Paris 1884–1921), nos 4000, 4088–90, 4092; Regesta pontificum romanorum inde ab anno post Christum natum 1198 ad annum1304, ed. A. Potthast (Berlin 1874–75), nos 11657, 11803.
Innocent IV, Registres, ed. E. Berger (Paris 1884–1921), nos 4000, 4088–90, 4092; Regesta pontificum romanorum inde ab anno post Christum natum 1198 ad annum1304, ed. A. Potthast (Berlin 1874–75), nos 11657, 11803.
The initiative for the forty-day term appears to have come from the papal legates, but was understood, for example by the count of Champagne, as having an origin in secular custom; S. Reynolds, Fiefs and Vassals (Oxford 1994), pp. 308–9 and n. 246 & refs;
H. A. Schumacher, Die Stedinger (Bremen 1865), pp. 51–76;Kennan, ‘Innocent III, Gregory IX and political Crusades’, p. 26;
C. T. Maier, Preaching the Crusades (Cambridge 1994), pp. 52–6 for a recent review of the Stedinger episode and pp. 167–9 for the war against the Drenther; Fine, Bosnian Church, pp. 137–55. On the Hussites, Housley, Later Crusades, pp. 249–59; F. G. Heyman, History of the Crusades, ed. Setton, iii, 586–646;
G. A. Holmes, ‘Cardinal Beaufort and the Crusades against the Hussites’, EHR, 88 (1973), 721–50.
Maier, Preaching the Crusades, passim; A. Gottlob, Die Kreuzzugssteuern des 13Jahrhundert (Heiligenstadt 1892), pp. 94–116; Lunt, Papal Revenues;
W. R. Lunt, Financial Relations of the Papacy with England (Cambridge, Mass. 1939–62).
J. Larner, The Lords of the Romagna (London 1965), p. 38.
As in M. H. Keen, ‘Chaucer’s Knight, the English Aristocracy and the Crusade’, English Court Culture in the Later Middle Ages, ed. V. J. Scattergood and J.W. Sherborne (London 1983), p. 46; the sentiments are those of Mayer, Crusades (1st edn 1972), pp. 281–6; against this are Riley-Smith, What Were the Crusades?, esp. p. 74 and Housley, e.g. Italian Crusades, p. 3.
Eudes Rigaud, Regestum visitati num archiepisopi Rothomagensis, ed. E. Bonnin (Roven 1852), p. 733.
Die Schriften des Kölner Domscholasters späteren Bischofs von Paderborn und Kardinal-Bischofi von S. Sabina Oliverus, ed. H. Hoogeweg (Tubingen 1894), p. 316; Maier, Preachingthe Crusades, pp. 67, 138, 141 and refs.
M. Barber, ‘The Crusade of the Shepherds in 1251’, Proceedings of the 10th Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History, ed. J. F. Sweet (Lawrence 1984), pp. 1–23;
G. Dickson, ‘The advent of the pastores (1251)’, Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, lxvi (1988), 249–67.
Gregory IX; Registres, ed. L. Auvray (Paris 1890–1955), nos 3363, 3633, 4027; Matthew Paris, Chronica majora, iii, 620;
Annals of Burton, Annales Monastici, ed. H. R. Luard, RS (1864–69), i, 265–7; 360–3; Calendar of Papal Registers, i, 234; Documents of the Baronial Movement of Reform and Rebellion, selected by R. F. Treharne, ed. I.J. Sanders (Oxford 1973), pp. 278-9;
Lois et coutumes de la vile de Lille, ed. E.B.J. Brun-Lavainne and J. Roisin (Lille 1842), pp. 308–9.
G. Villani, Cronica, ed. FG Dragomanni (Milan 1848), iii, 331–2 (Bk II, ch. 99.)
D. Queller, The Fourth Crusade (Philadelphia 1977), pp. 63–4, 69, 71 and refs; Housley, Italian Crusades, p. 37 and refs, pp. 84–6 and refs; Throop, Criticism ofthe Crusade, p. 112; Christiansen, Northern Crusades, p. 146;
Jean de Joinville, Histoire de St. Louis, ed. N. de Wailly (Paris 1868), pp. 261–2;
William Rishanger, Chronica, ed. H. T. Riley, RS (London 1865), pp. 66–8; Thomas Wykes, Chronicon, Annales Monastici, iv, 237–40; Tyerman, ‘Holy Land and the Crusades’, pp. 105–6.
E. Baluze, Miscellaneorum, i (Paris 1678). pp. 165–95.
Thomas Walsingham, Historia Anglicana, ed. H. T. Riley, RS (London 1863–64), ii, 88–9.
J. M. Powell, Anatomy of a Crusade 1213–1221 (Philadelphia 1986), pp. 97–102; for a translation of a letter of the master of the Temple mentioning the anticipation of Frederick’s arrival, E. Peters, Christian Society and the Crusades 1198–1229 (Philadelphia 1971), pp. 140–1 (and p. 105 for an example of Pelagius using his financial muscle).
J. M. Powell, Anatomy of a Crusade 1213–1221 (Philadelphia 1986), pp. 97–102; for a translation of a letter of the master of the Temple mentioning the anticipation of Frederick’s arrival,
E. Peters, Christian Society and the Crusades 1198–1229 (Philadelphia 1971), pp. 140–1 (and p. 105 for an example of Pelagius using his financial muscle).
On Louis IX, W. C. Jordan, Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade (Princeton, 1979);
J. Richard, Saint Louis: Crusader King of France (Cambridge 1992).
Siberry, ‘Criticism of crusading in fourteenth-century England’; A. Luttrell, ‘Chaucer’s Knight and the Mediterranean’, Library of Mediterranean History, i (1994), pp. 127–60.
Roger of Howden, Gesta Henrici Secundi, attrib. Benedict of Peterborough, ed. W. Stubbs, RS (London 1867), i, 276;
Ralph of Coggeshall, Chronicon Anglicanum, ed. T. Stevenson. RS (London 1875). p. 151.
E.g. Layettes du Trésor des Chartes, ed. A. Teulet et al, ii (Paris 1866), no. 1789 (Languedoc); C. Kohler, ‘Documents inedits concernant I’Orient Latin et les croisades’, Revue de l’Orient Latin, vii (1900), 11–14 (Constantinople); Henry of Livonia ut supra (Baltic); Housley, Italian Crusades, p. 164 (Italy).
F. Godefroy, Dictionnaire de l’ancien langue francaise, ii (Paris 1883), p. 378
et seq.; Anglo-Norman Dictionary, ed. W. Rothwell et al. (London 1992), p. 124; cf. as e.g.
Chronique d’Ernoul et de Bernard le Trésorier, ed. M. L. de Mas Latrie (Paris 1871), pp. 21, 25, 125, 126, 248, 262, 340, 348, 349, 401, 403, 410, 414, 416 (410 for croiserie);
‘Dialogue between Henry de Lacy and Walter Bibblesworth on the Crusade’, Reliquae Antiquae, ed. T. Wright and J. O. Halliwell, i (London 1841). For use of croisé and voyage,
Olivier de la Marche, Mémoires, ed. H. Beaune and J. d’Arbraumont (Paris 1883–88), ii, 339, 381; cf
C. Du Fresne Du Cange, Glossarium Latinitatis (Niort 1883— 87), iii, 625–30.
E.g. ‘fach de la crozada’ (1332/3), Inventaire sommaire des archives communales de Perigueux antérieures de 1792, ed. M. Hardy (Périgueux 1894), p. 72 (CC52); Dante, Paradiso, xv.11. 139–48 referred to the Second Crusade as a crociata. For papal use, see below, pp. 54–5.
Bernard Gui, De secta illorum qui se dicunt esse de ordine apostolorum in Manuel de l’Inquisiteur, ed. and trans. G. Mollat (Paris 1964), ii, 104.
Henry Knighton, Chronicon, ed. J. R. Lumby, RS (London 1895), ii, 198– 203.
Thomas Basin, Historiarum de rebus a Carolo Septimo, ed. J. Quicherat (Paris 1855–59), i, 289–91. Sanctum opus and peregrinatio are similarly used interchangeably by Pope Pius II in a letter to John, duke of Bourbon in 1463,
L. d’ Achery, Spicilegium sive collectio veterum aliquot scriptorum (Paris 1723), iii, 824.
J. Germain, Discours du Voyage d’ Oultremer, ed. C. Shéfer, Revue de l’Orient Latin, iii (1895), 325, 339.
Chronique de Mathieu d’ Escouchy, ed. G. du Fresne de Beaucourt (Paris 1863–64), pp. 160–2 et seq., 366–7.
For the 1390 expedition, Jehan Cabaret d’Orville, La Chronique de bon duc Loys de Bourbon, ed. A.-M. Chazaud (Paris 1876), pp. 219–58;
Chronique du religieux de St Denys, ed. L. Bellaguet, ii (Paris 1840), esp. pp. 428–9, 487– 522.
The Chronographia Regum Francorum, ed. H. Moranvillé (Paris 1891– 97), iii, 139 does call those massacred after Nicopolis as ‘crudeliter martirizati sunt’, but they are nowhere called crusaders or pilgrims by the author. The irony is that those fighting the Infidel may not have taken the Cross while those who fought Christians, e.g. in 1383, had.
Jean de Joinvlle, Histoire de St. Louis, ed. N. de Wailly (Paris 1868), pp. 2, 262,
Philippe de Beaumanoir, Les Coutumes de Beauvoisis, ed. Le Comte Beugnot (Paris 1842), ii, 503.
Rutebeuf, La desputizons dou croisié et dou descroisie, in Onze poèmes concernant la croisade, ed. J. Bastin and E. Faral (Paris 1946), pp. 84–94
See, for example, the references to Wyclif’s commentary on Matthew 24 and Knighton’s account of the 1383 crusade, The English Works of John Wyclif, ed. F. D. Matthew (London 1880), p. 491;
Register ofHenry Chichele, ed. E. F. Jacob, iv (Oxford 1947), pp. 101–2;
Register of Thomas Langley, ed. R. L. Storey (Durham 1956–70), no. 794. For the lateness of the word’s appearance in Anglo-Irish sources,
see R. E. Latham, Revised Medieval Latin Word-List (London 1965), p. 123.
Wyclif, Polemical Works in Latin, ed. R. Buddensieg (London 1883), ii, 582.
E. Charrière (ed.), Negociations de la France dans le Levant, i (Paris 1848), pp. 28, 35, 43, 53–4;
M. J. Heath, Crusading Commonplaces: La Noue, Lucinge and Rhetoric (Geneva 1985), p. 79.
J. Goni Gaztambide, Historia de la Bula de la Cruzada en Espana (Vitoria 1958).
Oeuvres de Georges Chastellain, ed. Kervyn de Lettenhove, iii (Brussels 1864), p. 69: sub anno 1454, heading of ch. xiii. Elswhere ‘voiage’ seemed to have been preferred, e.g. pp. 75–6.
F. Bacon, Advertisement Touching on Holy Warre in The Works of Francis Bacon, ed. J. Spedding et al., vii (London 1859). p. 25.
Roger of Howden, Gesta Henrici, ii, 30–3; Gervase of Canterbury, Historical Works, ed. W. Stubbs, RS (London 1879–80), i, 409–10;
Ralph of Diceto, Ymagines Historiarum, ed. W. Stubbs, Rolls Series (London 1876), ii, 51; Councils and Synods, i, pt 2, 1025–9; Rigord, Gesta Philippi Augusti, Oeuvres de Rigord et de Guillaume le Breton, ed. F. Delaborde, i, 84–5, 88; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 59–64, 75–8; Brundage, Canon Law and the Crusader, pp. 160–87 and passim; and above, pp. 24, 27–8, 35–41.
Coutumiers de Normandie, ed. E.-J. Tardif (Rouen 1881–1903), i, 37;
Glanvill, Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae, ed. G. D. G. Hall (London 1965), pp. 16–17, 151.
Coutumiers de Normandie, ii, 64–6; chs. XLIV, XC, XCIV, XCVIII; Henry de Bracton (sic.), De legibus et consuetudinibusAngliae, ed. T. Twiss, RS (London 1878–83), v, 159–69; Coutumes de Beauvoisis, i, 160; Coutume de Touraine Anjou, ed. P. Viollet, Les Etablissements de St. Louis (Paris 1881–86), iii, c. lxxvii.
Êtablissements et coutumes, assises et arrêts de l’échiquier de Normandie au treizième siècle, ed. M. A. J. Marnier (Paris 1839), pp. 133–4.
Receuil des actes de Philippe Auguste, ed. H.-F. Delaborde et al. (Paris 1916–79), i, no. 228.
Layettes du Trésor des Chartes, ii, no. 3560; Gregory X, Registres, ed. J. Guiraud et al. (Paris 1892–1906), Appendix II, p. 391, no. 1017.
Rolls of Justices, Lincolnshire 1218–19 and Worcestershire 1221, ed. D. M. Stenton (London 1934), p. 150, no. 324.
Les Olim ou Registres des Arrêts rendus par la cour du roi, ed. Le Comte Beugnot (Paris 1839–48), i, 854.
Pierre de Fontaines, Conseil, ed. M. A. J. Marnier (Paris 1846). p. 167.
Les Établissements de St. Louis, ed. P. Viollet (Paris 1881–86), ii, 145–6.
Register of Eudes of Rouen, ed. S. Brown and J. O’Sullivan (London 1964), p. 594.
C. J. Tyerman, ‘Philip VI and the recovery of the Holy Land,’ English Historical Review, c (1985), pp. 41–2.
The Mirror of Justices, ed. W. J. Whittaker and F. W. Maitland (Selden Society 7, 1893), p. 84.
Le Grand Coutumier de France, ed. E. Laboulay and R. Dareste (Paris 1868), pp. 435–6.
Matthew 16:24. For a general discussion of Urban’s speech, J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (London 1986), ch. I; cf. Mayer, Crusades, pp. 8–10.
E. O. Blake and C. Morris, ‘A hermit goes to war: Peter and the origins of the First Crusade’, Studies in Church History, xxi (1984).
Jacques de Vitry, Historia Occidentalis, ed. J. F. Hinnebusch (Fribourg 1972), pp. 89–90, 94–102, esp. 90, 95.
Maier, Preaching the Crusades, passim. Cf. D. D’Avray, The Preaching of the Friars (Oxford 1985).
E.g. Fulcher of Chartres’s omission of Jerusalem in his version: see Riley-Smith’s comment, First Crusade, p. 167 n. 21; cf. H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Urban II’s preaching of the First Crusade’, History, lv (1970).
Günther of Pairis, Historia Constantinopolitana, ed. Comte Riant, Exuviae sacrae Constantinopolitanae, i (Geneva 1877), pp. 60–6;
Günther of Pairis, Solymarius, Archives de l’Orient Latin, i (1881), 555–61;
F. R. Swietek, ‘Gunther of Pairis and the “Historia Constantinopolitana”’, Speculum (1978), pp. 49–79. For Robert of Rheims’s influence on Frederick I and his crusade, see the famous illustration of the emperor as crusader, being presented with a copy of the Historia by the provost of Schäftlarn, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Vat. Lat. 2001, fol. lr.
Alan of Lille, ‘Sermon de cruci domini’, Textes inédits, ed. M. T. d’Alverny, Études de philosophie mediévale, lii (Paris 1965), 281–2; Baldwin, Masters, Princes and Merchants.
Jacques de Vitry, Lettres, ed. R. B. C. Huygens (Leiden 1960), pp. 135, 139; cf. William of Tyre, Historia, Bk V, ch. 10. For these and other parallels I am indebted to the research of Ms Jessalyn Bird of The Queen’s College, Oxford. Jacques de Vitry, Historia Orientalis, ed. J. Bongars, Gesta Dei, i, 1047–1127; Oliver of Paderborn, Historia Damiatina, ed. H. Hoogeweg, Die Schriften des kölner Domscholasters (Tübingen 1894), trans E. Peters, Christian Society and the Crusades (Philadelphia 1971), pp. 48–139. For William of Tyre’s sources, P. W. Edbury and J. G. Rowe, William of Tyre (Cambridge 1988), esp. pp. 44–58.
J. J. van Moolenbroek, ‘Signs in the heavens in Gröningen and Friesland: Oliver of Cologne and crusading propaganda’, Journal of Medieval History, xiii (1987), 251–72; Jacques de Vitry, Historia Occidentalis (ed. Hinnebusch), pp. 89–90, 94–102.
Riley-Smith, First Crusade, pp. 30–5 and, generally, ch. 2; Cowdrey, ‘Urban II’s preaching’, pp. 183–4; R. Somerville, ‘The Council of Clermont and the First Crusade’, Studia Gratiana, xx (1976);
Anselm, Opera Omnia, ed. F. S. Schmitt (Edinburgh 1938–61), iv, 85–6, no. 195; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 16, 19, 154; Blake and Morris, ‘A hermit goes to war’; Vita Sancti Roberti de Arbrissello in Migne, PL, clxii, cols 1017–58.
S. Runciman, History of the Crusades (Cambridge 1951–54), i, 122; Ekkehard of Aura, Historia Hierosolymita, RHC Occ., v, 18–19; Gesta Francorum, ed. R. Hill (London 1962). n. 7.
De Expugnatione Lyxbonensis, p. 72; cf. P. W. Edbury, ‘Preaching the Crusade in Wales’, England and Germany in the High Middle Ages, ed. A. Haverkamp and H. Vollrath (Oxford 1996), pp. 230–1.
Jacques de Vitry, Historia Occidentalis, p. 101; Maier, Preaching the Crusades, esp. pp. 136–45; Throop, Criticism of the Crusade, pp. 82–94, 182, 184, 198–9, 287–8; E. Siberry, Criticism of Crusading (Oxford 1985), pp. 150–5.
E.g. Jacques de Vitry, Exempla, ed. T. F. Crane (London 1890), pp. 55–6, nos cxxi, cxxii. For recruiting, Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 167–86; Lloyd, English Society and the Crusade, esp. chs 3, 4, 5, and Lloyd in Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. Riley-Smith, pp. 48–54.
Regesto del cardinale Ugolino d’Ostia, ed. G. Levi (Rome 1890), no. cv.
Roger of Wendover, Flores Historiarum, ed. H. G. Hewlett, RS (London 1886–89), ii, 323.
Humbert of Romans, De predicatione Sanctae crucis (Nuremburg 1495), ch. 1; for a summary, Maier, Preaching the Crusades, pp. 114–16.
Gerald of Wales, Journey Through Wales, trans. L. Thorpe (London 1978), p. 75;
Gerald of Wales, Opera Omnia, ed. J. Brewer, RS (London 1861–91), i, 74;
Gerald of Wales, De rebus a se gestis, trans. H. E. Butler, The Autobiography of Giraldus Cambrensis (London 1937), p. 99.
J. P. Pitra, ed., Analecta Novissima (Paris 1885–88), ii, 428 (‘Sermo and crucesignatos vel crucesignandos’); Humbert of Romans, De Praedicatione, ch. 28.
H. Finke, Acta Aragonensia (Berlin and Leipzig 1908–66), i, 459–60, no. 308; Tyerman, ‘Philip VI and the recovery of the Holy Land’, p. 30 and n. 7.
Gerald of Wales, Autobiography, pp. 99–101; Opera, i, 75–6; Journey through Wales, pp. 141, 186–6; De Expugnatione Lyxbonensis, p. 71; Barling’s Chronicle, ed. W. Stubbs, Chronicles of Edward I and II, RS (London 1883), ii, cxvi.
Gerald of Wales, Autobiography, pp. 99–101; Gerald of Wales, Opera, i, 75–6; Ordinacio de predicatione Sancti Crucis in Angliae, ed. R. Röhricht, Quinti Belli Sacri Scriptores Minores, Société de l’Orient Latin, ii (Geneva 1879), pp. 18–26; Bibliothèque Nationale MS Latin 3293, fol. 249r cols i, ii; Laurentian Library, Florence, MS Leopoldina-Gaddiana no. 116, fol. 76r col. ii-fol. 77v col. i. In general, Cole, Preaching of the Crusades; C. Morris ‘Propaganda for War: The Dissemination of the Crusading Ideal’, Studies in Church History, ed. W. Shiels (Oxford 1983).
H. Martin, Le métier de Prédicateur en France septentrionale à la fin du môyen age 1350–1520 (Paris 1988), p. 550.
On Mézières in general see N. Iorga, Philippe de Méuères et la croisade au XIVe siècle (Paris 1896).
Cf. F. C. Tubach, Index Exemplorum (Helsinki 1969), nos 238, 1043–4, 1390–5, 2497, 3087–8, 3802, 3804, 4005, 4114–17, 4538, 4722–4, 5199.
Historical Pabers from Northern Registers ed. J.Raine,RS (London 1873), pp. 93–6.
Giles de Muisis, Chronicon majus, ed. J. J. Smet, Receuil des Chroniques de Flandres, ii (Brussels 1841), p. 216.
Chronique parisienne anonyme de1316 à1339, ed. A. Hellot, Mémoires de la société de l’histoire de Paris et de l’Île de France, xi (1184), p. 30; generally on this, Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 159, 168; C. J. Tyerman, ‘The French and the Crusade 1313–1336’ (unpublished D. Phil. Thesis, University of Oxford 1981), pp. 55–6, 139.
Archives de l’Hôtel Dieu de Paris, ed. L. Brièle (Paris 1894), pp. 87–8, no. 203.
J. A. Brundage, ‘The crusader’s wife: a canonistic quandary’, Studia Gratiana, xii (1967), 425–41;
J. A. Brundage, ‘The crusader’s wife revisited’, Studia Gratiana, xiv (1967), 241–52.
The will of Elizabeth de Burgh, Lady Clare, Testamenta Vestuta, ed. H. Nicolas (London 1836), I, 56–9, p. 57; she left 100 marks for five armed men to serve God and destroy the enemies in the Holy Land.
J. Sumption, The Albigensian Crusade (London 1978), p. 113;
T. Belperon, La croisade contre les Albigeois (Paris 1959), p. 202;
Siege of Carlaverock, ed. N. H. Nicolas (London 1828), pp. 52–4 for an instance of the black crosses in 1300; cf. Tyerman. England and the Crusades. pp. 331. 343.
Lea, History of the Inquisition, i, 462, 466–71; ii, Appendix X for examples of crosses imposed in the 1240s; Y. Dossat, Les crises de l’inquisition Toulousaine au xiiie siècle (1233–73) (Bordeaux 1959), pp. 108, 110–12, 172–3, 180–1, 211, 214, 252–60 (for lists and statistics), 264–5; Bernard Gui, Practica inquisitionis heretice pravitatis, ed. C. Douais (Paris 1886), pp. 3, 6, 11–13, 36–8, 50–3, 89–90, 98–101. I am indebted to Dr Peter Biller for references and discussion on these points.
Leet Jurisdiction in the City of Norwich, ed. W. Hudson, Selden Society (London 1892), pp. xlii–xliii, 77 and n. 5.
Purcell, Papal Crusading Policy, p. 70; Chronicle of Andres, sub anno 1212, Achéry, Spicilegium, ii, 852; Housley, Italian Crusades, pp. 136–7; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 139, 147–8; Flores Historiarum, ed. H. R. Luard, RS (London 1890), ii, 495; cf. the depiction of a praying knight, British Library Royal MS 2A xxii fol. 220.
Register of Thomas Langley, no. 796 (silk); Testamenta Vetusta, ed. Nicolas, i, 148 (brass); Registrum Abbatiae Johannis Whethamstede, ed. H. T. Riley, RS (London 1872–73), ii, 191–2 (iron).
Weltchrönik der Monchs Albert, ed. R. Sprandel, MGH (Munich 1994), p. 312, sub anno 1410; for Paul Vladimiri’s Articuli contra cruciferos (1416), Christiansen, Northern Crusades, pp. 228–9.
Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 141, 148–9; cf. the use of crosses as emblems in the Hundred Years War by the English (red) and French (white), Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the English in France during the reign of Henry VI, ed. J. Stevenson, RS (London 1861), i, pp. 41, 46, 424.
Sanudo, Secreta, Bk II, iv, c. xix, Bongars, Gesta Dei, ii, 74–5; cf. Bk II, iv, cc. xxiii, xxvii, pp. 81–2, 90–2. Cf. the not dissimilar proposal by the author of the Collectio de Scandalis Ecclesiae (c.1274), probably the Franciscan preacher Gilbert of Tournai, ed. A. Stroick, Archivium Franciscanum Historicum, xxiv (1931), p. 40.
Above, pp. 49–53, 61; L. T. Belgrano, ‘Une charte nolis de S. Louis’, Archives de l’Orient Latin, ii (1884), 233–5.
J. A. Brundage, ‘Cruce signari: the rite for taking the cross in England’, Traditio, xxii (1966), 306–7; Summa de legibus Normannie in curia laicali, ch. xc, Coutumiers de Normandie, pp. 215–16.
Literae Cantuariensis, ed. J. Brigstocke Sheppard, RS (London 1887–89), iii, 239, no. 1051. For Godric, above, ch. 1, pp. 21–2.
Lunt, Papal Revenues, ii, 518; C. Kohler, ‘Documents inédits concernant l’Orient Latin et les croisades’, no. ix, Revue de l’Orient Latin, viii, pp. 33–4; J. A. Brundage, ‘A note on the attestation of crusaders’ vows’, Catholic Historical Review, lii (1966–67), 236–9; Bibliotheque Nationale MS Collection Bourgogne, vol. 72, fol. 72r.
For these and the examples in the next paragraph, see Brundage, Canon Law and the Crusader, Brundage, ‘A note on attestation’; J. A. Brundage, ‘Cruce signari’, 289–310; K. Pennington, ‘The rite of taking the cross in the twelfth century’, Traditio, xxx (1974), 429–35;
A. Franz, Die Kirchlichen Benediktionen im Mittelalter, ii (Freiburg-im-Breisgau 1909), esp. pp. 284, 307;
M. Andrieu, Le Pontifical Romain au môyen age (Vatican 1940), ii, 418–20; iii, 30, 52, 64, 83, 104, 118, 131, 160, 187, 200, 212, 228, 243, 264, 276, 317, 330, 541–3; Purcell, Papal Crusading Policy, pp. 200–1.
H. Finke, Acta Aragonensia (Berlin and Leipzig 1908–66), i, 225, no. 147.
Register of Walter Giffard, Archbishop of York 1266–79, ed. W. Brown, Surtees Society cix (Edinburgh 1904), pp. 279–86.
Philippe de Mézières, Epistre lamentable et consolatoire, ed. K. de Letten hove, Oeuvres de Froissart, xvi (Brussels 1872), p. 475; Achéry, Spicilegium, iii, 795–6.
Livre des faits du bon messire Jean le Maingre dit Bouciquaut, ed. J. A. C. Buchon, Les Chroniques de Sire Jean Froissart, iii (Paris 1840), pt 1, ch. xxi, pp. 589–90.
Emmanuele Piloti, De modo, progressu, ordine ac diligenti providentia habendis in passagio Christianorum pro conquesta Terrae Sanctae, ed. Baron de Reiffenberg, Monuments pour servir à l’histoire des provinces de Namur etc., iv (Brussels 1846), p. 320.
B. Z. Kedar and S. Schein, ‘Un projet de “passage particulier” proposé par I’Ordre de I’Hôpital’, Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des Chartes, cxxxvii (1979), 221.
Caesarius of Heisterbach, Dialogus Miraculorum, ed. J. Strange (Cologne, Bonn and Brussels 1851), i, 12–13: Distinctio Prima: De Conversione, ch. vi.
William the Breton, Gesta Philippi Augusti, Oeuvres de Rigord et de Guillaume le Breton, ed. H.-F. Delaborde (Paris 1882–83), i, 303–4.
J. L. Cate, ‘The English Mission of Eustace of Flay’, Etudes d’histoire dédiées à la memoire de Henri Pirenne (Brussels 1937). pp. 67–87, esp. 71.
Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 146–51; for Simon’s spiritual life, see J. R. Maddicott, Simon de Montfort (Cambridge 1994), pp. 77–105.
F. M. Powicke, The Thirteenth Century, 1216–1307 (Oxford 1962), p. 80.
Housley, Italian Crusades, p. 109. The e silentio argurnent (Housley, Later Crusades, p. 266) that if there had been serious criticism more of it would have survived, appears a trifle desperate. Cf., generally, S. Reynolds, ‘Social mentalities and the case of scepticism’, TRHS, 6th Ser., i (1991), pp. 21–41.
F. Cardini, ‘Crusade and “Presence of Jerusalem” in Medieval Florence’, Outremer, ed. B. Kedar, H. Mayer and R. Small (Jerusalem 1982), p. 341 and n. 44.
See above, ‘Papal leadership’, pp. 41–9. See now J. Richard, Histoire des croisades (Paris 1996) for an argument that accepts the pluralist definition but insists on the spiritual and ideological primacy of the Holy Land.
K. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant, i (Philadelphia 1976), esp. chs. 9–15; Housley, The Avignon Papacy and the Crusades, Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 229–301.
S. Schein, Fideles Crucis: The Papacy, the West and the Recovery of the Holy Land 1274–1314 (Oxford 1991);
C. J. Tyerman, ‘Sed nihil fecit? The last Capetians and the recovery of the Holy Land’, War and Government in the Middle Ages, ed. J. Gillingham and J. C. Holt (Woodbridge 1984), pp. 170–81;
C. J. Tyerman, ‘Philip V of France, the Assemblies of 1319–20 and the Crusade’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, lvii (1984), pp. 15–34; C. J. Tyerman, ‘Philip VI and the recovery of the Holy Land’.
Schein, Fideles Crucis, pp. 74–5, 109–11, 137–8, 154, 197–202, 208, 210–11, 217, 240–3. For the discussion of merger at the Council of Lyons (1274), J. Delaville le Roulx (ed.), Cartulaire general de l’ordre des Hospitaliers (Paris 1899), iii, 597, no. 4156.
Barber, ‘Crusade of Shepherds’, pp. 2–4, 7, 16; Ralph Niger, De re militari, ed. L. Schmügge (Berlin 1977);
G. B. Flahiff’s studies, ‘Ralph Niger: an introduction to his life and works’ and ‘Deus non vult: a critic of the Third Crusade’, Medieval Studies, ii (1940), 104–26, 162–88; Siberry, Criticism of Crusading, pp. 11–13 and refs; W. F. Wakefield, Heresy, Crusade, Inquisition (London 1974), p. 210.
M. J. Epstein, ‘Ludovicus deus regnantium: perspectives on the rhymed office’, Speculum, liii (1978), 322.
Sanudo, Secreta, Bk iii, pt iv, Bongars, Gesta Dei, ii, 130–48 (where he follows William of Tyre closely, probably through the mediation of Jacques de Vitry’s Historia Orientalis); Piloti, De Modo, pp. 313, 320–1. For ‘cult’ of Godfrey de Bouillon, cf. the romances and tapestries describing his exploits owned by the earl and countess of Gloucester in the 1390s, A. Goodman, The Loyal Conspiracy (London 1971), pp. 81–2.
Bongars, Gesta Dei, ii, 98–281; C. J. Tyerman, ‘Marino Sanudo Torsello and the lost crusade: lobbying in the fourteenth century’, TRHS, 5th ser., xxxii (1982), 57–73. For a French collection of tracts, Bibliothèque Nationale MS Latin 7470 (presented to Charles IV); for an English compilation of slightly later vintage, British Library MS Cotton Otho D. V.
Le Songe du Vieil Pelerin, ed. G. W. Coopland (Cambridge 1969), i, 196, 398–9; 487, 515–16, 632; ii, 222–3 for the advice to read about Godfrey’s exploits.
R. de Maulde la Clavière, ed., Chronique de Louis Xll par Jean d’Auton (Paris 1889–95), i (Pièces Annexes), 396–7.
Philippe de Vitry, Le Chapel des Fleurs de Lis, ed. A. Piaget, Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des Chartes, xxvii (1898). 55–92.
Mézières, Songe, i, 5; A. S. Atiya, The Crusade in the Later Middle Ages (London 1938), p. 183; Luttrell, ‘Chaucer’s Knight and the Mediterranean’, pp. 131–2, 139, 149–50.
Abbe Lebeuf, Histoire de la ville et de tout le diocese de Paris: Rectifications et Additions, ed. F. Bournon (Paris 1890), i, 63–5; Chronique parisienne anonyme, pp. 29–30;
X. de Boisrouvray, ‘L’eglise collégiale et la confrérie du St. Sépulchre à Paris 1325–1791’, Positions des Theses de l’École nationale des Chartes (Paris 1953), pp. 33–5.
T. Smith, English Gilds, Early English Text Society xl (London 1840), pp. 11, 22, 114.
A. Sabarthes, ‘Les seigneurs de Palaja’, Bulletin philologique et historique (1920), p. 198; in general, Tyerman, ‘The French and the Crusade’, pp. 340–51 for details.
Cartulary of the Priory of St. Denys near Southampton, ed. E. O. Blake (Southampton 1981), i, 88; ii, 181–2; Archives historiques de la Gironde (Bordeaux 1859–), xlix, 324–34.
The Chapter Act Book of the Collegiate Church of St. John of Beverley, ed. A. F. Leach, Surtees Society ii (Durham 1903), 136;
U. Robert, Testaments de l’Qfficialité de Besançon, i (Paris 1902), 233–5.
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Tyerman, C. (1998). Definition and Diffusion. In: The Invention of the Crusades. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-26541-1_3
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