Abstract
Throughout his life Hans Linnemann has been concerned with equality and wealth in this world. Rather than travelling with his emergency kit to the poorest and most deprived, Hans took refuge in science, hoping to succeed where direct approaches often fail. But science is not straightforward. As Popper, Kuhn, Lakatos and others teach, science takes many paths — paradigms — that sometimes meet dead ends and sometimes join, having travelled apart for long. One such paradigm is the analysis of gravity, cherished by Hans for its simplicity and its readiness for empirical applications. Although applied already by Carey (1858) the theory can be said to have its roots in the Social Physics School of Zipf (1946), who launched the idea of approaching economic problems with existing models in physics. One of those models was Newton’s theory of gravity, in its simplest form given by
expressing the idea that the gravitational force F with which two bodies attract each other is directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart. The parameter γ is considered to be constant, viz. 6.67.10−11 N(m/kg), whatever the setting of the theory and therefore known as the constant of gravity.
We thank Michiel Keyzer, whose constructive remarks led to an improvement of this chapter, and René van Gelderen and Hielke Buddelmeijer for their assistance with word processing.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abrams, R.K. (1980) ‘International Trade Flows under Flexible Exchange Rates’, Economic Review (Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City) March, 3–10.
Aitken, N.D. (1973) ‘The Effect of the EEC and EFTA on European Trade: A Temporal Cross-Section Analysis’, American Economic Review, 63, 881–92.
Alonso, W. (1973) National Interregional Demographic Account: a Prototype, Monograph 17 (Berkeley: University of California, Institute of Urban and Regional Development).
Alonso, W. (1978) ‘A Theory of Movements’ in N.M. Hansen (ed.) Human Settlement Systems (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger) pp. 197–211.
Anderson, J.E. (1979) ‘A Theoretical Foundation of the Gravity Equation’, American Economic Review, 69, 106–16.
Armington, P.S. (1969) ‘A Theory of Demand for Products Distinguished by Places of Production’, IMF Staff Papers, 16, 159–78.
Beers, C. van and Linnemann, H. (1991) ‘Commodity Composition of Trade in Manufactures and South-South Trade Potential’, Journal of Development Studies, 27, 102–22.
Bergeijk, P.A.G. van (1989) Trade and Diplomacy: An Extension of the Gravity Model in International Trade Theory, Research Memorandum (Groningen: Rijksuniversteit).
Bergstrand, J.H. (1981) The Gravity Equation in International Trade, unpublished PhD thesis (Madison: University of Wisconsin).
Bergstrand, J.H. (1985) ‘The Gravity Model in International Trade: Some Microeconomic Foundations and Empirical Evidence’, Review of Economics and Statistics, 67, 474–81.
Bergstrand, J.H. (1989) ‘The Generalized Gravity Equation, Monopolistic Competition, and the Factor-Proportions Theory in International Trade’, Review of Economics and Statistics, 71, 143–53.
Biessen, G. (1991) ‘Is the Impact of Central Planning on the Level of Foreign Trade Really Negative?’, Journal of Comparative Economics, 15, 22–44.
Bikker, J.A. (1980) Een model voor patiëntenstromen naar ziekenhuizen, Research Report 52 (in Dutch) (Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit, Interfaculteit Actuariële Wetenschappen en Econometrie).
Bikker, J.A. (1982) Vraag- en Aanbodmodellen voor Geografisch Verspreide Markten (Demand-Supply Models for Systems of Geographically Dispersed Markets), PhD thesis (Amsterdam: Free University Press).
Bikker, J.A. (1987) ‘An International Trade Flow Model with Substitution: An Extension of the Gravity Model’, Kyklos, 40, 315–37.
Bikker, J.A. and Vos, A.F. de (1980) Interdependent Multiplicative Models for Allocation and Aggregates, Research Memorandum 52 (Amsterdam: Free University, Department of Econometrics).
Brada, J.C. and Méndez, J.A. (1985) ‘Economic Integration among Developed, Developing and Centrally Planned Economies’, Review of Economics and Statistics, 67, 549–56.
Carey, H.C. (1858) Principles of Social Sciences (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott).
Deardorff, A.V. (1984) ‘Testing Trade Theories and Predicting Trade Flows’ in R.W. Jones and P.B. Kenen (eds) Handbook of International Economics, vol. I, 467–517.
Deutsch, K.W. (1960) ‘A Statistical Model of the Gross Analysis of Transaction Flows’, Econometrica, 28, 551–72.
Elbers, C. (1992) Spatial Disaggregation in General Equilibrium Models with an Application to the Nepalese Economy (Amsterdam: Free University Press).
Fischer, G. Frohberg, K., Keyzer, M.A. and Parikh, K.S. (1988) Linked National Models: A Tool for International Food Policy Analysis (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer).
Geraci, V.J. and Prewo, W. (1977) ‘Bilateral Trade Flows and Transport Costs’, Review of Economics and Statistics, 59, 67–74.
Goodman, L.A. (1963) ‘Statistical Methods for the Preliminary Analysis of Transaction Flows’, Econometrica, 31, 197–208.
Gorman, W.M. (1959) ‘Separable Utility of Aggregation’, Econometrica, 27, 469–81.
Hicks, J. (1936) Value and Capital (Oxford University Press).
Hua, C. (1980) ‘An Exploration of the Nature and Rationale of a Systemic Model’, Journal of Environment and Planning A, 12, 713–26
Hua, C. and Porell, F. (1979) ‘A Critical Review of the Development of the Gravity Model’, International Regional Science Review, 4, 97–126.
Keller, W.J. (1979) Tax Incidence: A General Equilibrium Approach (The Hague: Pasmans).
Keyzer, M.A. (1981) The International Linkage of Open Exchange Economies, PhD thesis (Amsterdam: Free University).
Linder, S.B. (1961) An Essay on Trade and Transformation (Uppsala: Almquist & Wiksell).
Linnemann, H. (1966) An Econometric Study of International Trade Flows (Amsterdam: North-Holland).
Maanen, J.A.H. van (1988) ‘Exports and Growth — A Quantitative Analysis of the Turkish Economy’, PhD thesis (Amsterdam: Free University Press).
Meer, T. van der (1988) ‘Optimization in Econometrics, with Economic and Statistical Applications’, PhD thesis (Amsterdam: Free University Press).
Merkies, A.H.Q.M. and Meer, T. van der (1988) ‘A Theoretical Foundation of Constant Market Analysis’, Empirical Economics, 13, 65–80.
Merkies, A.H.Q.M. and Meer, T. van der (1989) ‘Scope of the Three-Component Model’, Regional Science and Urban Economics, 19, 1–14.
Nijkamp, P. and Poot, J. (1987) ‘Dynamics of Generalized Spatial Interaction Models’, Regional Science and Urban Economics, 17, 367–90.
Sapir, A. (1988) ‘Trade Benefits under the EEC Generalized System of Preferences’, European Economic Review, 15, 339–55.
Savage, J.R. and Deutsch, K. (1960) ‘A Statistical Model of the Gross Analysis of Transaction Flows’, Econometrica, 28, pp. 551–72.
Shephard, R.W. (1970) Theory of Cost and Production Functions (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
Strotz, R.H. (1957) ‘The Empirical Implications of a Utility Tree’, Econometrica, 25, 269–80.
Strotz, R.H. (1957) ‘The Utility Tree — a Correction and a Further Appraisal’, Econometrica, 27, 482–8.
Summary, R.M. (1989) ‘A Political-Economic Model of US Bilateral Trade’, Review of Economics and Statistics, 71, 179–82.
Tinbergen, J. (1962) Shaping the World Economy — Suggestions for an International Economic Policy (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund).
Zipf, G.K. (1946) ‘The P1P2/D Hypothesis on the Intercity Movements of Persons’, American Sociological Review, 1, 677–86.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 1994 Jan Willem Gunning, Henk Kox, Wouter Tims and Ynto de Wit
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Merkies, A.H.Q.M., van Beers, C. (1994). Paradigm Lost, Economics Regained: An Anatomical Lesson on the Gravity Model. In: Gunning, J.W., Kox, H., Tims, W., de Wit, Y. (eds) Trade, Aid and Development. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-23169-0_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-23169-0_4
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-349-23171-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-349-23169-0
eBook Packages: Palgrave Economics & Finance CollectionEconomics and Finance (R0)