Abstract
Social change1 in the Middle East may be explained in terms of acculturation theory, to the extent that the archaic-chiliastic and secular-nationalist variants of the literary and political renaissance which took place in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the early nineteenth century were generated by forces from outside the area. However, this theory cannot be particularly fruitful if it implies a Euro-centric approach. Thus Behrendt devalues his otherwise useful explanation by claiming, as a European, that the ‘underdeveloped nations’ imitate all the achievements of Europe in a negative fashion2 from a position of psychological weakness. von Grunebaum’s more sophisticated attempts to interpret Westernisation in the Islamic world are equally questionable. He sees it as a process which can only be understood in psychological terms: in other words ‘cultural change’ is seen in terms of psychologically-based American cultural anthropology.3
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Notes
see Carl Leiden (ed.), The Conflict of Traditionalism and Modernity in the Muslim Middle East (Austin, 1966);
see also Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society; Modernising the Middle East (Glencoe, 1962).
which forms the postscript to Franz Taeschner, Geschichte der arabischen Welt (Stuttgart, 1964) pp. 178–236.
See R. F. Behrendt, Soziale Strategic für Entwicklungsländer (Frankfurt/Main, 1965) esp. Ch. VI, pp. 331 ff.
See for instance G. von Grunebaum, ‘The Intellectual Problems of Westernization in the self-view of the Arab world’, in idem., Modern Islam; The Search for Cultural Identity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1962) pp. 128–79,
Walther Braune, ‘Die Entwicklung des Nationalismus bei den Arabern’, in R. Hartmann (ed.), BASI (Leipzig, 1944) pp. 425 ff., and on this p. 247.
S. D. Goitein, ‘The Rise of the Near-Eastern Bourgeoisie in the Early Islamic Times’, Journal of World History, III (1957) 583–604,
See also Rudolf Sellheim, ‘Neue Materialien zur Biographie des Yaqut’, in R. Sellheim et al., Schriften und Bilder, Drei orientalische Untersuchungen (Wiesbaden, 1967) pp. 41–72,
Kurt Steinhaus, Soziologie der türkischen Revolution, Zum Problem der Entfaltung der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft in sozioökonomisch schwach entwickelten Ländern (Frankfurt/Main, 1969) p. 19.
C. H. Becker, Islamstudien, Vom Werden und We sen der islam ischen Welt, 2 vols (Hildesheim, 1967) (first publ. 1924, 1932); here vol. i, p. 247.
See Maxime Rodinson, Islam and Capitalism (London, 1974).
see also Karl Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism, a Study of Total Power (New Haven and London, 1964) pp. 181 ff, 284 ff.
See C. F. Volney, Voyage en Egypte et en Syrie les années 1783–1785 (repr. Paris, 1959).
Eng. transl., Travels through Syria and Egypt in the years 1783, 1784, and 1785, 2 vols (London, 1787), facsimile reproduction, Farnborough, 1972.
Extracts from the English translation are also in C. Issawi (ed.), The Economic History of the Middle East, 1800–1914 (Chicago and London, 1966) pp. 213–19.
Zvi Y. Hershlag, Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East (Leiden, 1964) p. 17.
see H. A. R. Gibb, Mohammedanism, An Historical Survey, 2nd ed. (London, 1950) pp. 88–106,
as well as Majid Khadduri, ‘The Nature and Sources of the Shari’a’, George Washington Law Review, xx (1953) 3–23.
On the doctrine of Islamic universalism see W. M. Watt, Islam and the Integration of Society (London, 1961) pp. 273 ff.
C. Brockelmann devoted the second volume of his Geschichte der arabischen Literature (international abbreviation GAL) (Leiden, 1902),
S. J. Shaw, The Financial and Administrative Organization and Development of Ottoman Egypt 1517–1798 (Princeton, New Jersey, 1962) pp. 3f.
See also H. A. R. Gibb and H. Bowen, Islamic Society and the West; Part I, Islamic Society in the 18th Century, 2 vols (London, 1950, 1957) on Egypt, II, pp. 59 ff.
see Shaw (ed.), Ottoman Egypt in the Eighteenth Century. The Nizāmnāme-i-Misr of Cezzar Ahmad Pasha (Cambridge, Mass., 1962).
see also the short survey by J. Heyworth-Dunne in “Arabic Literature in Egypt in the Eighteenth century’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, IX (1937/39) pp. 675–89.
Hans Henle, Der neue Nahe Osten (Hamburg, 1966) p. 19.
see e.g. Walther Braune, Der islamische Orient zwischen Vergangenheit und Zukunft (Berne and Munich, 1960);
Bernard Lewis, The Middle East and the West, 2nd ed. (Bloomington, 1965);
Carleton S. Coon, ‘The Impact of the West on Middle Eastern Social Institutions’, Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, XXIV (1952) No. 4, 443–66;
Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, viii The West and the Islamic World (London, 1954) pp. 216 ff.;
B. Tibi, introduction to Die arabische Linke (Frankfurt/Main, 1969) pp. 7–41;
Ibraham Abu-Lughod, The Arab Rediscovery of Europe, A study in Cultural Encounters (New Jersey, 1963);
and finally Philip K. Hitti, ‘The Impact of the West on Syria and Lebanon in the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of World History, II (1955) No. 3, 608–33.
Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (London, 1962) p. 49.
e.g. H. Z. Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism, 2nd ed. (Ithaca, 1959);
H. Saab, The Arab Federalists of the Ottoman Empire (Amsterdam, 1959).
For details of the Napoleonic Expedition see F. Charles-Roux, Bonaparte, Gouverneur d’Egypte, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1946),
and more recently, Georges Spillmann, Napoleon et l’Islam (Paris, 1969) esp. Part I, pp. 49–149.
as well as J. Heyworth-Dunne, ‘Printing and Translations under Muhammad ‘Ali of Egypt’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1940) 325–49.
On the general subject of the relations between ruler and ruled in Islamic history see Fritz Steppat, ‘Der Muslim und die Obrigkeit’, Zeitschrift fur Politik, XII (1965) No. 4, 319–32,
J. M. Ahmed, The Intellectual Origins of Egyptian Nationalism (London, 1960) pp. 1–6;
M. Rifaat, The Awakening of Modern Egypt (London, 1947) pp. 1–15.
See H. Pérès, ‘L’Institut d’Egypte et l’oeuvre de Bonaparte jugés par deux historiens arabes contemporains’, Arabica, IV (1957) pp. 113–30;
‘Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, ‘Aja’ib al-Athar fi’l-Tarajim w’al-Akhbar, 4 vols (Cairo, 1904–05),
On al-Jabarti see David Ayalon, ‘The Historian al-Jabarti and his Background’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, XXII (1960) pp. 217–49.
and J. Shayyal, Rifa’a R. al-Tahtawi, 1801–1873 (Cairo, 1958) pp. 13–15,
For the Anglo-French conflict over Egypt at this time, see John Marlowe, Anglo-Egyptian Relations 1800–1953 (London, 1954) pp. 7–29, esp. pp. 15 ff.
C. Issawi, Egypt in Revolution, an Economic Analysis (London, 1963) pp. 18–31;
see also P. M. Holt, Egypt and the Fertile Crescent 1516–1922 (Ithaca and London, 1966) esp. pp. 176 ff.
See Muhammad ‘Ammara, al-’Uruba fi’l-’Asr al-Hadith (Arabism in Modern History) (Cairo, 1967) pp. 29 ff., esp. 61 ff.
See also the original and extensive research of A. Abdel-Malek, Idéologic et Renaissance Nationale; L’Egypte Moderne (Paris, 1969),
Amos Perlmutter, ‘Egypt and the Myth of the New Middle Class: A Comparative Analysis’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, X (1967/8) 46–65; here p. 50;
For the Muhammad ‘Ali period in general, see the monograph by Henry Dodwell, The Founder of Modern Egypt. A Study of Muhammad ‘Ali (Cambridge, 1931);
Helen Anne B. Rivlin, The Agricultural Policy of Muhammad ‘Ali in Egypt (Cambridge, Mass., 1961).
see also G. Baer, A History of Landownership in Modern Egypt 1800–1950 (London, 1962) pp. 1 ff.;
and ‘Abd al-Fattah Haikal, ‘Die Auswirkung der Britischen Kolonialpolitik auf die Wirtschaft Ägyptens’, in Walter Markov (ed.), Kolonialismus und Neokolonialismus in Nordafrika und Nahost (Berlin, 1964) pp. 226–48.
see J. Heyworth-Dunne’s valuable Introduction to the History of Education in Modern Egypt, 2nd ed. (London, 1968) (1st ed. London, 1939) pp. 96 ff.
Apart from J. Shayyal’s inadequate Rifa’a R. al-Tahtawi 1801–1873 (Cairo, 1958),
the following are useful: J. Heyworth-Dunne, ‘Rifa’a Bey Rafi’ al-Tahtawi: The Egyptian Revivalist’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, IX (1937/39) 961–7, and X (1940/42) 399–415.
See also Ibraham Abu-Lughod, The Arab Rediscovery of Europe (Princeton, 1963) passim;
also Khaldun S. Husry, Three Reformers, A Study in Modern Arab Political Thought (Beirut, 1966) pp. 11–32;
also W. Braune, ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte des neuarabischen Schrifttums’, Mitteilungen des Seminars für orientalische Sprachen, xxxvi (1933) No. 2, 117–40.
Rifa’a R. al-Tahtawi, Takhlis al-ibriz ila talkhis Paris (Paris Diary) (Cairo, 1834).
For further material on al-Tahtawi’s Paris diary see Wiebke Hermann, ‘Rifa’a Beys Beschreibung seiner Reise nach Paris, ein Werk der Frühzeit des islamischen Modernismus’, Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle, XII (1963) Nos. 3/4, 221–8,
B. Tibi, ‘Akkulturationsprozesse im modernen Orient’, Neue Politische Literatur, XV (1970) 77 ff.
Sharabi discusses the change in the Arab intellectual’s concept of the West since al-Tahtawi in ‘Die Entstehung einer revolutionären Ideologie in der arabischen Welt’, Bustan, x (1969) Nos. 2/3, 3–11.
see G. Solomon-Delatour (ed.), Die Lehre Saint-Simons (Neuwied, 1962),
R. R. al-Tahtawi, al-Murshid al-Amin fi Ta’lim li’l-Banat wa’l-Banin (Guiding Truths for Girls and Youths) (Cairo, 1875).
R. R. al-Tahtawi, Kitab Manahij al-Albab al-Misriyya fi Mabahij al-Adab al-’Asriyya (Cairo, 1912).
See R. Hartmann, ‘Die Wahhabiten’, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen-ländischen Gesellschaft, Lxxviii (1924) No. 2, 176–213:
see also W. C. Smith, Islam in Modern History (Princeton, 1957),
and M. Rifaat, al-Tawjih al-Siyasi li’l-Fikra al-’Arabiyya al-Haditha (Political Trends in Modern Arabic Thought) (Cairo, 1964) pp. 11–31.
Hans Bräker, Islam-Sozialismus-Kommunismus: zur ideengeschichtlichen Grundlage der Sozialismus-und Kommunismus-Diskussion innerhalb des Islams (Cologne, 1968)
See R. Hartmann, ‘Gegenwartsfragen und-strömungen des Islam’, Koloniale Rundschau, xxxiii (1942) No. 2, 57–71, here p. 59.
See C. C. Adams, Islam and Modernism in Egypt (London, 1933);
E.g. the highly prejudiced work of Elie Kedourie, Afghani and ‘Abduh, An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam (London, 1966);
also Nikki Keddie’s introduction to her (ed.), An Islamic Response to Imperialism, Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal al-Din ‘al-Afghani’ (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1968).
For the meeting between ‘Abduh and Spencer see W. S. Blunt, My Diaries, Being a Personal Narrative of Events 1888–1914, 4th ed. (New York, 1934) (first published in 1921 in 2 vols) pp. 480 f.
See also Charles C. Adams, Islam and Modernism in Egypt, A Study of the Modern Reform Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad ‘Abduh (London, 1933);
also Max Horten, ‘Muhammad ‘Abduh, sein Leben und seine theologisch-philosophische Gedankenwelt, eine Studie zu den Reformbestrebungen im modernen Ägypten’, Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Orients, Jahrbuch der Deutschen Vorderasiengesellschaft, xiii (1916) 83–114, and xiv (1917) 74–128.
P. J. Vatikiotis, ‘Muhammad ‘Abduh and the Quest for a Muslim Humanism’, Arabica, IV (1957) 55–72, here p. 55.
Here and on the following see Malcolm Kerr, Islamic Reform, The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Ridha (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1966) pp. 103 ff.
See Fritz Steppat, ‘Nationalismus und Islam bei Mustafa Kamil’, Die Welt des Islams, n.s. IV (1956) 241–341, and Chapter 9 below.
R. Hartmann, Islam und Nationalismus (Berlin, 1948) p. 25;
For modern Islam see also A. M. Goichon, ‘Le Panislamisme d’hier et d’aujourd’hui’, Afrique et l’Asie (1950) 18–44;
Kenneth Cragg, ‘Religious Developments in Islam in the 20th Century’, Journal of World History, III (1956) No. 2, 504–24.
In a publication of the Nazi period, Arthur Rock’s Ibn Saud gründet das Gottesreich Arabien (Berlin, 1935) pp. 9 ff.
On this movement see the following works: J. Heyworth-Dunne, Religious and Political Trends in Modern Egypt (Washington, 1950);
Zvi Kaplinsky, ‘The Muslim Brotherhood’, Middle Eastern Affairs, v (1954) 377–85;
I. M. Husayni, The Moslem Brethren (Beirut, 1956);
Christina Phelps Harris, Nationalism and Revolution in Egypt, The Role of the Muslim Brotherhood (The Hague, 1964);
and the extensive study by Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (London, 1969).
For the Muslim Brothers’ attitude to Pan-Arab nationalism, see Erwin I. J. Rosenthal, Islam in the Modern National State (Cambridge, 1965) pp. 103–24.
and the monograph by Mahmud Qasim, ‘Abd al-Hamid ben Badis, al-Za’im al-Ruhi li-Harb al-Tahrir al-Jaza’iriyya (Ben Badis, the spiritual leader of the Algerian war of liberation) (Cairo, 1968).
For the Islamic pact, see Axel Steden’s somewhat uncritical ‘Islampakt und Nassers Opposition’, Orient, VII (1966) No. 3, 79–83.
For Islam under Nasser, see Martin Grzeskowiak, ‘Islam und Sozialismus in der VAR’, Mitteilungen des Institute für Orientforschung, xiv (1968) No. 1, 28–44
H. O. Ziegler, Die moderne Nation, ein Beitrag zur politischen Soziologie (Tübingen, 1931) p. 137.
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Tibi, B. (1971). The Historical Background of Arab Nationalism. In: Farouk-Sluglett, M., Sluglett, P. (eds) Arab Nationalism. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-20802-9_5
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