Introduction

Abstract

It would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, thoroughly to examine China from a macroeconomic as well as a sociopolitical perspective. From the point of view of methodology it would be even more controversial. To avoid these pitfalls, we have taken a straightforward approach based on the premise of a stable and centripetal empire, although why and how it was formed is another fascinating topic. In order to sustain such an empire, especially given the high cost of information and transportation, China has not only witnessed a massive expansion of state power and the suppression of private property and of civil rights, but also has produced its own particular integration of ‘the mandate of heaven’ (or the heaven’s will) — ‘popular faith’ (tianming-minxin). Instead of religion, Confucianism whose golden rule is ‘believing in the mandate of heaven but not gods or ghosts’ (xin tianming bu xin guishen) dominated in China. Confucianist doctrine holds that the mandate of heaven is irresistible and there can be no change in law and establishment without a change of heaven (tian bubian, do yi bubian). In contrast, such beliefs as ‘heaven’s days are numbered’ (tianshu yi jin) and ‘the brown heaven has died, the yellow heaven should rise’ (cangtian yi si, huangtian dang li) were the main spiritual support for rebel mass movements aimed at overthrowing the old dynasty.