Abstract
In the early 1980s, intense controversy over deployment of new American intermediate-range nuclear missiles brought insistent questioning in Western Europe of the existing NATO defence posture and a steady stream of proposals calling for its radical reorganization. These ideas have been most numerous in Federal Germany, where the bulk of NATO ground forces face the main Warsaw Pact standing forces, and where opposition to missile deployment was most intense. The resultant debate between proponents of new approaches and supporters of the current NATO force posture has focused essentially on two main themes: the feasibility of non-nuclear defence; and the merits of static defence based on high-tech microelectronics — sensors, and rocket launchers using precision-guided munitions — versus mobile defence based on tanks and other armoured platforms.
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Notes
Moch cited in Edward Fursdon, The European Defence Community: A History (London: Macmillan, 1980), p. 91
Nicole Gnesotto, ‘Le dialogue franco-allemand depuis 1954: patience et longueur de temps’, in Karl Kaiser and Pierre Lellouche, (eds), Le couple franco-allemand et la défense de l’Europe (Paris: Institut Français des Relations Internationales, 1986), pp. 12–13.
The details of these negotiations have not been made fully public. A most authoritative discussion is Catherine McArdle Kelleher, Germany and the Politics of Nuclear Weapons (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1975), pp. 104, 132, 146–51.
Steven Baker, Italy and the Nuclear Option (Santa Monica, Ca.: California Arms Control and Foreign Policy Seminar, 1974), p. 7.
See also Lothar Ruehl, La politique militaire de la cinquième république (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1976), p. 39.
and the statement by Pierre Guillaumat in L’aventure de la bombe: De Gaulle et la dissuasion nucléaire (1958–1969) (Paris: Plon, 1985), p. 68.
See Roger Morgan, West European Politics Since 1945: The Shaping of the European Community (London: Batsford, 1972), p. 201.
Alessandro Silj, Europe’s Political Puzzle: A Study of the Fouchet Negotiations and the 1963 Veto (Cambridge, Mass.: Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, December 1967), pp. 60–4.
The text of the Elysée Treaty and the Bundestag’s preamble are reproduced as an appendix to Karl Kaiser and Pierre Lellouche (eds), Le couple franco-allemand et la défense de l’Europe (Paris: Institut Français des Relations Internationales, 1986), pp. 329–33.
Pascal Boniface and François Heisbourg, La puce, les hommes et la bombe: l’Europe face aux nouveaux défis technologiques et militaires (Paris: Hachette, 1986), pp. 238–9.
Michael Harrison, The Reluctant Ally: France and Atlantic Security (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), pp. 129–30.
General de Gaulle’s speech of 15 February 1963, in his Discours et messages, vol. 4 (Paris: Plon, 1970), pp. 86–7.
For a more detailed discussion, see David S. Yost, France’s Deterrent Posture and Security in Europe, Part I: Capabilities and Doctrine, Adelphi Paper No. 194 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, Winter 1984/5), pp. 4–13.
Ruehl, ‘Franco-German Military Cooperation: An Insurance Policy for the Alliance’, Strategic Review, vol. 16, Summer 1988, p. 52.
Marc Ullmann, ‘Security Aspects in French Foreign Policy’, Survival, November–December 1973, p. 263.
For background on French MBFR policy, see David S. Yost, France’s Deterrent Posture and Security in Europe, Part II: Strategic and Arms Control Implications, Adelphi Paper No. 195 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, Winter 1984/5), pp. 42–6.
For details and sources, see Jean Klein, ‘Mythes et réalités de la défense de l’Europe’, Politique Etrangère, 1983, no. 2, pp. 320–1.
André Adrets, ‘Les relations franco-allemandes et le fait nucléaire dans une Europe divisée’, Politique Etrangère, vol. 49, Autumn 1984, p. 651.
See Michael Tatu, ‘La France propose de lever les dernières restrictions imposées à la RFA en matière d’armements classiques’, Le Monde, 25 February 1984, p. 5.
Charles Hernu, ‘Face à la logique des blocs, une France indépendante et solidaire’, Défense Nationale, December 1982, p. 17.
For detailed discussions, see David S. Yost, France and Conventional Defense in Central Europe (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1985).
Diego Ruiz Palmer, ‘Between the Rhine and the Elbe: France and the Conventional Defense of Central Europe’, Comparative Strategy, vol. 6, no. 4, 1987, pp. 471–512.
Gustav A. Bittner, ‘La coopération franco-allemande en matière d’armement classique’, in Karl Kaiser and Pierre Lellouche (eds), Le couple franco-allemand et la défense de l’Europe (Paris: Institut Français des Relations Internationales, 1986), p. 132.
François Puaux, ‘La France, l’Allemagne et l’atome: discorde improbable, accord impossible’, Défense Nationale, December 1985, pp. 11–12.
Lars Benecke, Ulrich Krafft, and Friedhelm Mayer zu Natrup, ‘Franco-West German Technological Cooperation’, Survival, vol. 28, May–June 1986, p. 234.
Testimony of 26 June 1986, by André Giraud, in François Fillon, Rapport fait au nom de la Commission de la Défense Nationale et des Forces Armées sur le projet de loi de programme (no. 432) relatif à l’équipement militaire pour les années 1987–1991, no. 622 (Paris: Assemblée Nationale, April 1987), pp. 222–3. It appears that the 120 mm gun on the Lederc will be compatible with the 120 mm guns on the US M-1 and West German Leopard tanks.
For a detailed chronology, see Henri Louet, Rapport d’information déposé en application de l’article 145 de règlement par la Commission de la Défense Nationale et des Forces Armées sur la coopération industrielle franco-allemande en matière d’hélicoptère de combat, no. 249 (Paris: Assemblée Nationale, July 1986), pp. 20–3.
Jacques Isnard, ‘Paris et Bonn s’engagent à construire en commun un hélicoptère de combat’, Le Monde, 18 July 1987, p. 10.
Jacques Isnard, ‘Un hélicoptère de combat commun à 140 millions de francs l’exemplaire’, Le Monde, 13 November 1987, p. 4.
David Marsh, ‘Costs Double in Bonn-Paris Helicopter Deal’, Financial Times, 22 May 1987, pp. 1, 28.
Michael Feazel, ‘Germany Agrees to Development of European Avionics for PAH-2/HAP’, Aviation Week and Space Technology, 28 July 1986, pp. 21–2.
Ibid., pp. 244–6. Some of these French perspectives are worded more emphatically in François Heisbourg, ‘Coopération en matière d’armements: rien n’est jamais acquis’, in Karl Kaiser and Pierre Lellouche (eds), Le couple franco-allemand et la défense de l’Europe (Paris: Institut Français des Relations Internationales, 1986), pp. 122–3.
See Jean-Marc Gonin, ‘Grands projets, petits pas’, in L’Express, 22 January 1988, pp. 42–3.
For recent discussions, see Jacques Isnard, ‘Des sourires tous azimuts’, Le Monde, 12 September 1987, p. 12.
F. Clifton Berry, ‘Turning Point in French Industrial Cooperation’, National Defense, December 1987, pp. 31–2.
François Heisbourg, ‘Défense française: l’impossible statu quo’, Politique Internationale, no. 36, Summer 1987, p. 151.
Lacaze, ‘La politique militaire’, Défense Nationale, November 1981, pp. 9–10.
François Gorand, ‘La politique de sécurité européenne de la France de 1981 à 1985 et après’, Commentaire, no. 33, Spring 1986, p. 14.
Hernu cited in Le Monde, 5 November 1983, p. 9.
Hernu and Woerner cited in Le Monde, 22 June 1985, pp. 1, 4.
Jacques Chirac, speech on 12 December 1987, at the Institut des Hautes Etudes de Défense Nationale, ‘La France et les enjeux de la sécurité européenne’, Défense Nationale, February 1988, p. 16.
Jacques Chirac, ‘La politique de défense de la France’, Défense Nationale, November 1986, p. 11.
Elie Marcuse, ‘Paris-Bonn: les ratés du dialogue’, L’Express, 6 June 1986, p. 19.
see Pierre Lellouche, ‘“Moineau Hardi” envol difficile’, Le Point, 5 October 1987, p. 29.
Karl Feldmeyer, ‘Viel Wirbel um die Übung “Kecker Spatz”’, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 September 1987.
Karl Feldmeyer, ‘Beim Manöver “Kecker Spatz” klappt fast nichts’, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 24 September 1987.
see Lt-Col Christian Millotat, ‘Deutsch-Französische Truppenübung Kecker Spatz’, Soldat und Technik, vol. 30, November 1987, pp. 666–8.
Diego A. Ruiz Palmer, ‘France’, in Jeffrey Simon (ed), NATO-Warsaw Pact Force Mobilization (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1988), pp. 269–316.
General Furcy Houdet cited in Le Quotidien de Paris, 20 March 1985.
See also General Voinot, cited in Le Monde, 21 November 1985.
Lothar Ruehl cited in indirect discourse in Le Monde, 25 September 1987, p. 6.
NATO command centres using standard alliance procedures’ (‘FAR from perfect’, The Economist, 26 September 1987, p. 63).
(See Jacques Isnard, ‘Le coureur de fond de la “Fataquie”’, Le Monde, 23 April 1987.
and Isnard, ‘Les manoeuvres franco-allemandes “Moineau hardi” permettront de tester la capacité de la FAR à secourir la Bundeswehr’, Le Monde, 11 September 1987, p. 9.)
Georges Vincent, ‘Défense en France’, Défense Nationale, August-September 1985, p. 169.
Konrad Seitz, ‘Deutsch-französische sicherheitspolitische Zusammenarbeit’, Europa-Archiv, vol. 37, 25 November 1982, p. 660.
Schmitt cited in Le Monde, 3 March 1988, p. 13).
Elie Marcuse, ‘L’Europe oui, mais lentement’, L’Express, 17 July 1987, pp. 6–7.
Jacques Isnard in Le Monde, 27–8 September 1987, p. 3.
General René Imbot, ‘The French Rapid Action Force’, NATO’s Sixteen Nations, Special No. 1, 1983, p. 39.
See the interviews with Phillip Karber in Armed Forces Journal International, May 1987, pp. 42–60, and June 1987, pp. 112–37.
Jacques Isnard in Le Monde, 11 September 1987, p. 9.
Jerôme Dumoulins and Dominique de Montvalon, ‘Europe: la brigade du Rhin’, L’Express, 3 July 1987, p. 6.
Woerner cited in Jacques Isnard, ‘La brigade franco-allemande aurait pour mission d’aider l’armée française à s’engager outre-Rhin’, Le Monde, 19–20 July 1987, p. 6.
Jacques Isnard, ‘La brigade mixte sera basée au sud de Stuttgart’, Le Monde, 23 January 1988, p. 3.
Jacques Isnard, ‘Quatre garnisons outre-Rhin pour la brigade franco-allemande’, Le Monde, 12 October 1988, p. 12.
Georges Vincent, ‘Défense en France’, Défense Nationale, November 1986, p. 174.
See Wilfred L. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), pp. 90–1.
Hernu cited in Le Monde, 8 October 1982.
Hernu, ‘La politique et la volonté de défense’, Politique Internationale, no. 16, Summer 1982, pp. 14–15.
Schmidt cited in Atlantic News, 27 June 1975, p. 4).
(Sauvagnargues cited in Le Monde, 29–30 June 1975).
Wimmer in ARD television broadcast of 16 July 1985, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service — Western Europe, Daily Report, 18 July 1985, pp. J1–J2.
Hernu cited in Le Monde, 7 December 1982.
Cf. Karl Kaiser and Pierre Lellouche, ‘Le couple franco-allemand et la sécurité de l’Europe: synthèses et recommendations’, in Karl Kaiser and Pierre Lellouche (eds), Le couple franco-allemand et la défense de l’Europe (Paris: Institut Français des Relations Internationales, 1986), p. 325.
Mitterrand cited in Le Monde, 27–8 September 1987, p. 3.
Pierre Lellonche, L’avenir de la guerre (Paris: Editions Mazarine, 1985), p. 283.
In August 1985, President Mitterrand and West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl agreed to install a secure Paris-Bonn ‘hot line’ or ‘red telephone’. Le Monde, 27 August 1985, p. 3.
Jacques Isnard, ‘Le missile Hadès aurait une portée accrue’, Le Monde, 22 January 1988, p. 34.
Mitterrand cited in Le Monde, 21 October 1987, p. 3.
In October 1988, Mitterrand added that this ‘ultimate and unique warning’ strike would be delivered only against ‘strictly military targets’. (Speech of 11 October 1988, reported in Le Monde, 13 October 1988, p. 9.)
Chirac cited in Le Monde, 9 March 1988.
(See Jacques Isnard, ‘Un sous-marin en Haute-Provence’, Le Monde, 16–17 October 1988, p. 9.)
Mitterrand cited in indirect discourse in Le Monde, 22 October 1987, p. 4.
Ruehl, Die Welt, 29 December 1987, op. cit. in n. 65, pp. 3–4.
For background, see David S. Yost, ‘French Nuclear Targeting’, in Desmond Ball and Jeffrey Richelson (eds), Strategic Nuclear Targeting (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1986), pp. 127–56.
Karl Kaiser, Cesare Merlini, Thierry de Montbrial, William Wallace, and Edmund Wellenstein, The European Community: Progress or Decline? (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1983), p. 36.
According to Jacques Isnard (Le Monde, 30 November 1982, p. 10).
Raymond Barre, ‘De la sécurité en Europe’, Défense Nationale, June 1987, p. 26.
General Guy Lewin, ‘Réflexions sur la défense de la France et l’avenir de la dissuasion nucléaire’, Stratégique, no. 2, 1987, p. 58.
See Jacques Isnard, ‘Des armes nucléaires préstrategiques le plus à l’est possible’, Le Monde, 24 October 1987, p. 3.
Jacques Amalric, ‘Les tentations stratégiques de M. Mitterrand’, Le Monde, 22 October 1987, p. 1.
see Frédéric Tiberghien, ‘Puissance et rôle de l’armement préstratégique français’, Le Monde diplomatique, February 1987, pp. 14–15.
For background, see David S. Yost and Thomas C. Glad, ‘West German Party Politics and Theater Nuclear Modernization Since 1977’, Armed Forces and Society, vol. 8, Summer 1982, pp. 525–60.
See Pierre Lellouche, ‘Paris: deux logiques pour une stratégie’, Le Point, 7 March 1988, p. 39.
André Glucksmann, La force du vertige (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1983), pp. 137–8.
Mitterrand’s speech in Hamburg, 14 May 1982, in Le Nouvel Observateur, 12 June 1982, p. 109.
K-Peter Stratmann, Aspekte der Sicherheitspolitischen und Militärstrategischen Entwicklung in den 90er Jahren, SWP-AP 2474 (Ebenhausen: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, June 1986), p. 30.
Michel Tatu, ‘Une suggestion: le Hadès sous ‘double-clé’ franco-allemande’, Le Monde, 4–5 December 1983, p. 4.
For Bahr, see Der Spiegel, 20 May 1985, pp. 126–7.
Schmidt, Deutscher Bundestag, Stenographischer Bericht, Plenarprotokoll 10/77, 28 June 1984, pp. 5596–5603.
Dregger, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 19 June 1987, p. 2.
for Fabius, Le Monde, 17 June 1987, p. 8.
Chevènement, Le Monde, 18 June 1987, p. 13.
for Giscard d’Estaing, Le Monde, 15 June 1985, p. 8.
Ruehl cited in DPA dispatch of 4 October 1985 in FBIS-Western Europe, 8 October 1985, p. J4.
Woerner interview in International Defense Review, vol. 18, no. 9, 1985, p. 1393.
for the UDF, Le Monde, 15 June 1985, p. 8.
Poll, see ‘Un Français sur deux est partisan d’une garantie nucléaire à l’Allemagne fédérale’, Le Monde, 9 February 1988, p. 15.
François de Rose, ‘La force de dissuasion nucléaire française et la sécurité de la République fédérale d’Allemagne’, in Karl Kaiser and Pierre Lellouche (eds), Le couple franco-allemand et la défense de l’Europe (Paris: Institut Français des Relations Internationales, 1986), pp. 191–5.
François Gorand, ‘Le consensus français sur la politique étrangère est-il menacé?’ Commentaire, no. 31, Autumn 1985, pp. 948–9.
General Georges Fricaud-Chagnaud, ‘L’Europe de la dissuasion et des solidarités actives’, Stratégique, no. 1, 1986, p. 14.
Among other sources, see Luc Rosenzweig, ‘Le scepticisme ouest-allemand demeure’, Le Monde, 27–28 September 1987, p. 3.
Hans-Peter Schwarz, ‘Atlantic Security Policy in an Era without Great Alternatives’, in Karl Kaiser and Hans-Peter Schwarz (eds), America and Western Europe (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1977), p. 194.
Pierre Hassner, ‘La coopération franco-allemande: Achille immobile à grand pas?’ in Karl Kaiser and Pierre Lellouche (eds), Le couple franco-allemand et la défense de l’Europe (Paris: Institut Français des Relations Internationales, 1986), p. 173.
Helmut Schmidt, ‘Deutsch-französische Zusammenarbeit in der Sicherheitspolitik’, Europa-Archiv, vol. 42, 10 June 1987, p. 311.
Luc Rosenzweig, ‘Les “réserves” de la Bundesbank à l’égard du conseil économique et financier’, Le Monde, 23 January 1988, p. 3.
See Daniel Vernet, ‘Paradoxes franco-allemandes’, Le Monde, 25 June 1987, pp. 1, 3.
Luc Rosenzweig, ‘En termes d’image, l’Ostpolitik est plus “rentable” que le dialogue avec Paris’, Le Monde, 22 January 1988, p. 3.
Hernu cited in Le Monde, 17 March 1987, p. 14.
see Michel Jobert, ‘Now Comes a German Swing to the East’, International Herald Tribune, 8 July 1987, p. 4.
Gabriel Robin, La diplomatie de Mitterrand ou le triomphe des apparences, 1981–1985 (Paris: Editions de la Bièvre, 1985), pp. 226–7.
Thatcher interview in Financial Times, 23 November 1987, p. 19.
Ruehl, Die Welt, 29 December 1987, op. cit. in n. 65, p. 3.
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© 1990 Stephen F. Szabo
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Dean, J. (1990). Alternative Defence — Answer to the Bundeswehr’s Post-INF Problems?. In: Szabo, S.F. (eds) The Bundeswehr and Western Security. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-11032-2_10
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