Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Textbook of Coronary Thrombosis and Thrombolysis pp 495–515Cite as

Monitoring Chronic Oral Anticoagulant Therapy

  • Chapter

  • 178 Accesses

Part of the book series: Developments in Cardiovascular Medicine ((DICM,volume 193))

Abstract

The efficacy of oral anticoagulant therapy is well established for preventing and treating venous and arterial thromboembolism in a wide variety of clinical settings. In recent years, standardized laboratory monitoring and recognition of the frequency and hazards of overly intense anticoagulation have resulted in major improvements in the safety and efficacy of oral anticoagulant therapy. In this chapter we briefly review issues relating to monitoring chronic anticoagulant therapy and discuss guidelines for achieving and maintaining an optimal level of anticoagulation in clinical settings in which oral anticoagulant therapy is used, such as deep venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, atrial fibrillation, prosthetic heart valves, and following myocardial infarction.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   389.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   499.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   499.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Hirsh J, Dakn JE, Deykin D, Polier L. Oral anticoagulants: Mechanism of action, clinical effectiveness and optimal therapeutic range. Chest 102(Suppl.):312S, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Breckenridge AM. Oral anticoagulant drugs: Pharmacokinetic aspects. Semin Hematol 15:19, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Wessler S, Gitel SN. Pharmacology of heparin and warfarin. J Am Coll Cardiol 8:10B, 1986.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Fuster V, Ip J, Jang IK, Fay W, Chesebro J. Antithrombotic therapy in cardiac disease. In Parmley W, Chattarjee K (eds). Cardiology. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Quick AJ. The prothrombin time in haemophilia and obstructive jaundice. J Biol Chem 109:73, 1935.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Zucker S, Cathey MH, Sox PJ, Halleck EC. Standardization of laboratory tests tor controlling anticoagulant therapy. Am J Clin Pathol 53:348, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Poller L. Progress in standardization in anticoagulant control. Hematol Rev 1:225, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Baily EL, Harper TA, Pinkerton PH. Therapeutic range of one-stage prothrombin time in control of anticoagulant therapy. Can Med Assoc J 105:1041, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Latallo ZS, Thomson JM, Poller L. An evaluation of chromogenic substrates in the control of oral anticoagulant therapy. Br J Hematol 47:307, 1981.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Poler L, Taberner DA. Dosage and control of oral anticoagulants: An international survey. Br J Hematol 51:479, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Kirkwood TBL. Calibration of reference thromboplastins and standardization of the prothrombin time ratio. Thromb Haemost 49:238, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Poller L. A simple nomogram for the derivation or International Normalised Ratios for the standardization of prothrombin time. Thromb Haemost 60:18, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Brandjes DPM, Heijboer H, Buller HR, de Rijk M, Jagt II, ten Cate JW. Acenocoumarol and heparin compared with acenocoumarol alone in the initial treatment ot proximal-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 327:1485, 1992.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Hirsh J, et al. Continuous intravenous heparin compared with intermittent subcutaneous heparin in the initial treatment ot proximal-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 315:1109, 1986.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Hyers TM, Hull RD, Weg JG. Antithrombotic therapy tor venous thromboembolic disease. Chest 102(Suppl.):408S, 1992. (Erratum, Chest 103:1636, 1993.)

    Google Scholar 

  16. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Rosenbloom D, et al. Heparin for 5 days as compared with 10 days in the initial treatment of proximal venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med 322:1260, 1990.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Gallus A, Jackman J, Tillen J, Mills W, Wycherley A. Safety and efficacy of Warfarin started early after submassive venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Lancet 2:1293, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Hull R, Delmore T, Carter C, et al. Warfarin sodium versus low dose heparin in the long term treatment of venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med 301:855, 1979.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Hull R, Hirsh J, Carter C, et al. Different intensities of oral anticoagulant therapy in the treatment of proximal vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 307:1676, 1982.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Berdeaux DH, Klein KL, Millhollen JD, et al. Lower dose of anticoagulation is as effective as standard dose of oral anticoagulation (abstr). Blood 80(Suppl.):310, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Hirsh J, Poller L, Deykin D, Levine M, Dalen JE. Optimal therapeutic range for oral anticoagulants. Chest 95(Suppl.):5S, 1989. (Erratum, Chest 96:962, 1989.)

    Google Scholar 

  22. British Society for Hematology. Guidelines on oral anticoagulation, 2nd ed. J Clin Pathol 43:177, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Loeliger EA, Poller L, Samama M, et al. Questions and answers on prothrombin time standarisation in oral anticoagulant control. Throm Haemost 54:515, 1985.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Hyers T, Hull R, Weg J. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease. Chest 108(Suppl.):335S, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Research Committee of the British Thoracic Society. Optimum duration of anticoagulation for deep-vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Lancet 340:873, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Prandoni P, Lensing AWA, Büller HR, et al. Deep vein thrombosis and the incidence of subsequent symptomatic cancer. N Engl J Med 327:1128, 1992.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Levine MN, Hirsh J, Gent M, et al. Optimal duration of oral anticoagulant therapy: A randomized trial comparing four weeks with three months of Warfarin in patients with proximal deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemos 74:606, 1995.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Schulman S, Rhedin A-S, Lindmarker P, et al. A comparison of six weeks with six months of anticoagulant therapy after a first episode of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 332:1661, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Levine MN, Gent M, Hirsh J, et al. The thrombogenic effect of anticancer drug therapy in women with stage II breast cancer. N Engl J Med 318:404, 1988.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Hirsh J. The optimal duration of anticoagulant therapy for venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med 332:1710, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Donaldson GA, Williams C, Scannell JG, Shaw RS. A reappraisal of the application of the Trendelenburg operation to massive fatal embolism: Report of a successful pulmonary-artery thrombectomy using a cardiopulmonary bypass. N Engl J Med 268:171, 1963.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Salzman EW, Davies GC. Prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism: Analysis of cost effectiveness. Ann Surg 19:1207, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Hull RD, Hirsh J, Sackett DL, Stoddart GL. Costeffectiveness of primary and secondary prevention of fatal pulmonary embolism in high-risk surgical patients. Can Med Assoc J 127:990, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Bergqvist D, Matzch T, Jendteg S, Lindgern B, Persson U. The cost-effectiveness of prevention of post-operative thromboembolism. Acta Chir Scand 556(Suppl.):36, 1990.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Paiement GD, Wessinger SJ, Harris WH. Cost-effectiveness of prophylaxis in total hip replacement. Am J Surg 161:519, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Clagett GP. Hematologic factors in arterial thrombotic disease. In Yao JST, Pearce WH (eds). The Ischemic Extremity, Advances in Treatment. East Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange, 1995:25.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Nachman RL, Silverstein R. Hypercoagulable states. Ann Intern Med 119:819, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Svensson PJ, Dahlbach B. Resistance to activated protein C as a basis for venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med 330:517, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Ridker PM, Hennenkens CH, Lindapaintner K, et al. Mutation in the gene coding for coagulation factor V and the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, and venous thrombosis in apparently healthy men. N Engl J Med 332:912, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Salzmann EW, Hirsh J. The epidemiology, pathogenesis, and natural history of venous thrombosis. In Colman RW, Hirsh J, Marder VJ, et al. (eds). Hemostasis and Thrombosis, Basic Principles and Clinical Practice, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1994:1276.

    Google Scholar 

  41. NIH Consensus Conference. Prevention of venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. JAMA 256:744, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Carter C, Gent M, Leclerc JR. The epidemiology of venous thrombosis. In Coleman RW, Hirsh J, Marder VJ, et al. (eds). Hemostasis and Thrombosis. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott 76:1185, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Coon WW. Epidemiology of venous thromboembolism. Ann Surg 186:149, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Goldhaber SZ, Savage DD, Garrison RJ, et al. Risk factors for pulmonary embolism: The Framingham Study. Am J Med 74:1023, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Kakkar VV, Stringer MD. Prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism. World J Surg 14:670, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Taberner DA, Poller L, Burslem RW, et al. Oral anticoagulants controlled by the British comparative thromboplastin versus low-dose heparin in prophylaxis of deep vein thrombosis. Br Med J 1:1272, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Poller L, McKernan A, Thompson JM, et al. Fixed minidose warfarin: A new approach to prophylaxis against venous thrombosis after major surgery. Br Med J 295:1309, 1987.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Francis CW, Pellegrini VD, Marder VJ, et al. Comparison of warfarin and external pneumatic compression in prevention of venous thrombosis after total hip replacement. JAMA 267:2911, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Hull R, Delmore TJ, Hirsh J, et al. Effectiveness of intermittent pulsatile elastic stocking for the prevention of calf and thigh vein thrombosis in patients undergoing elective knee surgery. Thromb Res 16:37, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. McKenna R, Galante J, Bachmann F, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism after total knee replacement by high-dose aspirin or intermittent calf or thigh compression. Br Med J 280:514, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Haas SB, Insall JN, Scuderi GR, et al. Pneumatic sequential compression boots compared to aspirin prophylaxis of deep-vein thrombosis after total knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg 72A:27, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Lynch JA, Baker PL, Polly RE, et al. Mechanical measures in the prophylaxis of post-operative thromboembolism in total knee arthroplasty. Clin Orthop 260:24, 1990.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Lunceford EM, Patel SJ, Niestat HB, et al. Prevention of thrombophlebitis in total hip arthroplasty by early ambulation. Clin Orthop 33:273, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Prins MH, Hirsh J. A comparison of general anesthesia and regional anesthesia as a risk factor for deep vein thrombosis following hip surgery: A critical review. Thromb Haemost 64:497, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Fullen WD, Miller EH, Steele WF, et al. Prophylactic vena caval interruption in hip fractures. J Trauma 13:403, 1973.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Golueke PJ, Garrett WV, Thompson JE, et al. Interruption of the vena cava by means of the Greenfield filter: Expanding the indications. Surgery 103:111, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Vaughn BK, Knezevich S, Lombardi AV, et al. Use of the Greenfield filter to prevent fatal pulmonary embolism associated with total hip and knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg 71:1542, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Leyvraz PF, Richard J, Bachman F. Adjusted versus fixed-dose subcutaneous heparin in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis after total hip replacement. N Kngl J Med 309:954, 1983.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Leyvraz PF, Bachmann F, Hoek J, et al. Prevention of deep vein thrombosis after hip replacement: Randomized comparison between unfractionated heparin and low molecular weight heparin. Br Med J 303:543, 1991.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Dechavanne M, Ville D, Berruyer M, et al. Randomized trial of a low-molecular-weight heparin (Kabi 2165) versus adjusted-dose subcutaneous standard heparin in the prophylaxis of deep-vein thrombosis after elective hip surgery. Haemostasis 1:5, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Amstutz HC, Friscia DA, Dorey F, et al. Warfarin prophylaxis to prevent mortality from pulmonary embolism after total hip replacement. J Bone Joint Surg 71A:321, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Paiment GD, Wessinger SJ, Hughes R, et al. Routine use of adjusted low-dose warfarin to prevent venous thromboembolism after total hip replacement. J Bone Joint Surg 75A:893, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Hull RC, Raskob GE, Pieno GF, et al. A comparison of subcutaneous low-molecular-weighr heparin with warfarin sodium for prophylaxis against deep-vein thrombosis after hip or knee implantation. N Engl J Med 329:1370, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Leclerc JR, Geerts WH, Dwsjardins L, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism after knee arthroplasty: A randomized, double blinded trial, comparing a low molecular weight heparin fragment (enoxaparin) to warfarin. Blood 84(Suppl. 1):246A, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Spiro TE, Fitzgerald RH, Trowbridge AA, et al. Enoxaparin a low molecular weight heparin and warfarin for rhe prevention of venous thromboembolic disease after elective knee replacement surgery. Blood 84(Suppl. 1):246A, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Heit J, Berkowitz S, Bona R, et al. Efficacy and safety of ardeparin (a LMWH) compared to warfarin for prevention of venous thromboembolism following total knee replacement: A double-blind, dose-ranging study (abstr). Thromb Haemost 73:978, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Francis CW, Marder VJ, Evarts CM, et al. Two-step warfarin: Prevention of postoperative venous thrombosis without excessive bleeding. JAMA 249:374, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Borgstrom S, Greitz T, Vand Der Linden W, et al. Anticoagulant prophylaxis of venous thrombosis in patients with fractured neck of femor. Acta Chir Scand 129:500, 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Hamilton HW, Crawford JS, Gardiner JH, et al. Venous thrombosis in patients with fracture of the upper end of the femur. J Bone Joint Surg 52:268, 1970.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Snook GA, Chrosman OD, Wilson TC. Thromboembolism after surgical treatment of hip fractures. Clin Orthop 155:21, 1981.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Bronge A, Dalhlgren S, Lindquist B. Prophylaxis against thrombosis in femoral neck fractures: A comparison between dextran 70 and dicumarol. Acta Chir Scand 137:29, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Berquist E, Bergqvist D, Bronge A, et al. An evaluation of early thrombosis prophylaxis following fracture of the femoral neck. Acta Chir Scand 138:689, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Bern M, Lokich JJ, Wallach SR, et al. Very low doses of warfarin can prevent thrombosis in central venous catheters: A randomized prospective trial. Ann Intern Med 112:423, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Sikarski JM, Hampson WG, Staddon GE. The natural history and etiology of deep vein thrombosis after total hip replacement. J Bone Joint Surg 63B:171, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Trowbridge A, Boese CK, Woodruff B, et al. Incidence of posthospitalization proximal deep venous thrombosis after total hip arthroplasty. Clin Orthop 299:203, 1994.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Lotke PA, Steinberg ME, Ecker ML. Significance of deep vein thrombosis in the lower extremity after total joint arthroplasty. Clin Orthop 299:25, 1994.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Antiplatelet Trialists Collaboration. Collaborative overview of randomized trials of antiplatelet therapy: III. Reduction in venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism by antiplatelet prophylaxis among surgical and medical patients. Br Med J 308:235, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Kline A, Hughes LE, Campbell H, et al. Dextran 70 in prophylaxis of thromboembolic disease after surgery: A clinically oriented randomized trial. Br Med J 2:109, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Graor RA, Stewart JH, Lotke PA, et al. RD heparin vs. aspirin to prevent deep venous thrombosis after hip or knee replacement surgery (abstr). 58th Annual Scientific Assembly, American College of Chest Physicians, 1992:118S.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Harris WH, Salzman EW, Athanasoulis CA, et al. Aspirin prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism after total hip replacement. N Engl J Med 297:1246, 1977.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Soreff J, Johnson H, Diener L, et al. Acetylsalicylic acid in a trial to diminish thromboembolic complications after elective hip surgery. Acta Orthop Scand 46:246, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Harris WH, Salzman EW, Athamasoulis C, et al. Comparison of warfarin, low-molecular weight dextran, aspirin, and subcutaneous heparin in prevention of venous thromboembolism following total hip replacement. J Bone Joint Sury 56:1522, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Harris WH, Athanasoulis CA, Waltman AC, et al. Prophylaxis of deep-vein thrombosis after total hip replacement. J Bone Joint Surg 67:57, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Harris WH, Athanasoulis CA, Waltman AC, et al. High and low dose aspirin prophylaxis against venous thromboembolic disease in total hip replacement. J Bone Joint Surg 64:63, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Clagett GP, Anderson FA Jr, Levine MN, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism. Chest 102:391S, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Purdue GF, Hunt JL. Pulmonary embolism in burned patients. J Trauma 28:218, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Sevitt S, Gallagher N. Venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: A clinico-pathologic study in injured and burned patients. Br J Surg 45:475, 1961.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Clagett GP, Heit J, Levine N, Wheeler HB. Prevention of venous thromboembolism. Chest 108:312S, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Peterson P, Godtfredsen J, Boysen G, Anderson ED, Anderson B. Placebo-controlled, randomized trial of warfarin and aspirin for prevention of thromboembolic complications in chronic atrial fibrillation. The Copenhagen AFASAK study. Lancet 1:175, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  90. The Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Investigators: The Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation study: Final results, Circulation 84:527, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  91. The Boston Area Anticoagulation Trial for Atrial Fibrillation investigators. The effect of low-dose warfarin on the risk of stroke in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 323:1505, 1990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Connoly S, Laupacis A, Gent M. Canadian atrial fibrillation anticoagulation (CAFA) study. J Am Coll Cardiol 18:349, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Ezekowitz M, Bridgers S, James K, et al. VA cooperative study of warfarin in the prevention of stroke associated with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 327:1406, 1992.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Albers GW, Sherman DG, Gress DR, Paulseth JE, Petersen P. Stroke prevention in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: A review of prospective randomized trials. Ann Neurol 30:511, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Albers GW. Atrial fibrillation and stroke: Three new studies, three remaining questions. Arch Intern Med 154:1443, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. EAFT (European Atrial Fibrillation Trial) Study Group. Secondary prevention in nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation after transient ischemic attack or minor stroke. Lancet 342:1255, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Ferguson JJ. Meeting highlights. American College of Cardiology 45th Annual Scientific Session, Orlando, Florida, March 24–27, 1996. Circulation 94:1, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Atrial Fibrillation investigators. Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation: Analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 154:1449, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Kase CS, Robinson RK, Stein RW, et al. Anticoagulant-related intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 35:943, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Wintzer AR, deJonge H, Loeliger EA, Bots GTAM. The risk of intracerebral hemorrhage during oral anticoagulant treatment: A population study. Ann Neurol 16:533, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Albers GW. Intensity of anticoagulant treatment and risk of intracerebral hematoma. Stroke 21:1758, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Levine M, Hirsh J, Landefled S, Raskob G. Hemorrhagic complication of anticoagulant treatment. Chest 102(Suppl.):352S, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Kelton J, Hirsh J. Bleeding associated with antithrombotic therapy. Semin Hematol 17:259, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Philips S, Whisnant J, O’Fallon, Frye R. Prevention of cardiovascular disease and diabetes in residents of Rochester, Minnesota. Mayo Clin Proc 65:344, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Laupacis A, Albers G, Dalen J, et al. Antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Chest 108(Suppl.): 352S, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation investigators. Warfarin versus aspirin for prevention of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation: Stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation II study. Lancet 343:687, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  107. The Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation investigators. Predictors of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation II: Echocardiographic features of patients at risk. Ann Intern Med 116:6, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  108. The Stroke Prevention on Atrial Fibrillation investigators. Predictors of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation, I: Clinical features of patients at risk. Ann Intern Med 116:1, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Stein PD, Collins JJ Jr, Kanatrowitz A. Antithrombotic therapy in mechanical and biological prosthetic heart valves and saphenous vein bypass grafts. Chest 89(Suppl.):46S, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Dale J. Arterial thromboembolic complications in patients with Starr-Edwards aortic ball valve prostheses. Am Heart J 91:653, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Horstkotte D, Körfer R. The influence of prostheticvalve replacement on the natural history of severe acquired heart lesions: A comparison of complications and clinical and hemodynamic findings after implantation of Björk-Shiley, St. Jude Medical, and other heart valve prostheses. In De Bakey ME (ed). Advances in Cardiac Valves: Clinical Perspectives. New York: Yorke Medical Books, 1983:47.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Chesebro JH, Ezekowitz M, Badimon L, Fuster V. Intercardiac thrombi and systemic thromboembolism: Detection, incidence, and treatment. Annu Rev Med 36:579, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Christo MC, Souza JM, Stortini MJ, et al. Late complication of cardiac valve replacement with Lillegei-Kaster pivoting disc prosthesis. Artif Organs 4:199, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Yeh TJ. Anabtawi IN, Cornett VE, Ellison RG. Influence of rhythm and anticoagulation upon the incidence of embolization associated with Starr-Edwards prostheses. Circulation 35(Suppl. 1):I77, 1967.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Cannegieter SC, Rosendaal FR, Briët E. Thromboembolic and bleeding complications in patients with mechanical heart valve prostheses. Circulation 89:635, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Horstkotte D, Schulte HD, Bricks W, et al. Lower intensity anticoagulation therapy results in lower complication rates with the St. Jude Medical Prosthesis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 107:1136, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Baudet EM, Oca CC, Roques XF, et al. A five and half year experience with the St. Jude Medical cardiac valve prosthesis: Early and late results of 737 valve replacements in 671 patients. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 90:137, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Vogt S, Hoffmann A, Roth J, et al. Heart valve replacement with the Bjork-Shiley and St. Jude Medical Prostheses: A randomized comparison in 178 patients. Eur Heart J 11:583, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Kopf GS, Hammond GL, Geha AS, et al. Long-term performance of the St. Jude Medical valve: Low incidence of thromboembolism and hemorrhagic complications with modest doses of warfarin. Circulation 76(Suppl. III):III132, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Akbarian M, Austen G, Yurchal PM, Scannell JG. Thromboembolic complications of prosthetic cardiac valves. Circulation 37:826, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Duvoisin GE, Brandenberg RO, McGoon DC. Factors affecting thromboembolism associated with prosthetic heart valves. Circulation, 35(Suppl. I):I70, 1967.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Douglas PS, Hirshfeld JW, Edie RN, Harken AH, Stephenson LW, Edmunds LH. Clinical comparison of St. Jude and porcine aortic valve prostheses. Circulation 72(Suppl. II):II135, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Wilson DB, Dunn MI, Hassanein K. Low-intensity anticoagulation in mechanical cardiac prosthetic valves. Chest 100:1553, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Stein PD, Gransidon D, Hua TA, et al. Therapeutic levels of oral anticoagulation with warfarin in patients with mechanical prosthetic heart valves: Review of literature and recommendations based on international normalized ratio. Postgrad Med J 70(Suppl. 1):S72, 1994.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Saor JN, Sieck JO, Mamo LAR, et al. Trial of different intensities of anticoagulation in patients with prosthetic heart valves. N Engl J Med 322:428, 1990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Turpie AGG, Gent M, Laupacis A, et al. Comparison of aspirin with placebo in patients treated with warfarin after heart-valve replacement. N Engl J Med 329:524, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Rajah SM, Sreeharan N, Joseph A, et al. Prospective trial of dipyridamole and warfarin in heart valve patients (abstr). Acta Thera (Brussels) 6:54, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Yamak B, Karagoz HY, Zorlutuna Y, et al. Low-dose anticoagulant management of patients with a St. Jude medical mechanical valve prostheses. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 41:38, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Fiore L, Brophy M, Deykin D, et al. The efficacy and safety of the addition of aspirin in patients treated with oral anticoagulants after heart valve replacement: A meta-analysis (abstr). Blood 82(Suppl. I):409, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Sullivan JM, Harken DE, Gorlin R. Effect of dipyridamole on the incidence of arterial emboli after cardiac valve replacement. Circulation 39(Suppl.):I149, 1969.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Groupe de recherche P.A.C.T.E. Prevention des accidents thrombo-emboliques systemiques chez les porteurs de protheses valvulaires artificielles. Coeur 9:915, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Chesebro JH, Fuster V, Elveback LR, et al. Trial of combined warfarin plus dipyridamole or aspirin therapy in prosthetic heart valve replacement: Danger of aspirin compared with dipyridamole. Am J Cardiol 51:1537, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Nunez L, Aguado GM, Celemin D, et al. Aspirin or coumadin as the drug of choice for valve replacement with porcine bioprosthesis. Ann Thorac Surg 33:354, 1982.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Stein P, Alpert J, Copeland J, et al. Antithrombotic therapy in patients with mechanical and biologic prosthetic heart valves. Chest 102(Suppl.):445S, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Cohn LH, Allred EN, DiSesa VJ, et al. Early and late risk of aortic valve replacement: A 12-year concomitant comparison of the porcine bioprosthetic and tilting disc prosthetic aortic valves. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 88:695, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Bolooki H, Kaiser GA, Mallon SM, et al. Comparison of long-term results of Carpentier-Edwards and Hancock bioprosthetic valves. Ann Thorac Surg 42:494, 1986.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Bloomfield P, Kitchin AH, Wheatley DJ, et al. A prospective evaluation of the Bjork-Shiley, Hancock, and Carpentier-Edwards heart valve prostheses. Circulation 73:1213, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Cohn LH, Allred EN, Cohn LA, et al. Early and late risk of mitral valve replacement. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 90:872, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Nunez L, Aguado GM, Larrea JL, et al. Prevention of thromboembolism using aspirin after mitral valve replacement with porcine bioprosthesis. Ann Thorac Surg 37:84, 1984.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Gonzalez-Lavin L, Chi S, Blair TC, et al. Thromboembolism and bleeding after mitral valve replacement with porcine valves: Influence of thromboembolic risk factors. J Surg Res 36:508, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Mok CK, Boey J, Wang R, et al. Warfarin versus dipyridamole-aspirin and pentoxifylline-aspirin for the prevention of prosthetic heart valve thromboembolism: A prospective clinical trial. Circulation 72:1059, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Hetzer R, Topalidis T, Borst HG. Thromboembolism and anticoagulation after isolated mitral valve replacement with porcine heterografts. In Cohn LH, Gallucci V (eds). Proceedings, Second International Symposium on Cardiac Bioprostheses. New York: Yorke Medical Books, 1982:170.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Oyer PE, Stinson EB, Griepp RB, et al. Valve replacement with the Starr-Edwards and Hancock prostheses: Comparative analysis of later morbidity and mortality. Ann Surg 186:301, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Ionescu MI, Smith DR, Hasan SS, et al. Clinical durability of the pericardial xenograft valve: Ten years experience with mitral replacement. Ann Thorac Surg 34:255, 1982.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Turpie AGG, Gunsrensen J, Hirsh J, et al. Randomized comparison of two intensities of oral anticoagulant therapy after tissue heart valve replacement. Lancet 1:1242, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Stein P, Alpert J, Copeland J, et al. Antithrombotic therapy in patients with mechanical and biological prosthetic heart valves. Chest 102(Suppl.):445S, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  147. Louagie YA, Jamart J, Eucher P, et al. Mitral valve Carpentier-Edwards bioprosthetic replacement, thromboembolism, and anticoagulants. Ann Thorac Surg 56:931, 1993.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Altman R, Boullon F, Rouvier J, Raca R, et al. Aspirin and prophylaxis on thromboembolic complications in patients with substitute heart valves. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 72:127, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Karchmer AW, Dismukes WE, Buckley MJ, et al. Late prosthetic valve endocarditis — clinical features influencing therapy. Am J Med 64:199, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Braunwald E. Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. Philadelphia, ··, 1992:1065.

    Google Scholar 

  151. Melzer RS, Visser CA, Fuster V. Intracardiac thrombi and systemic embolization. Ann Intern Med 104:689, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study. Anticoagulants in acute myocardial infarction: Results of a cooperative clinical trial. JAMA 225:724, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  153. Medical Research Council Group. Assessment of short-term anticoagulant administration after cardiac infarction: Report of the Working Party on Anticoagulant Therapy in Coronary Thrombosis. Br Med J 1:335, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  154. Drapkin A, Merskey C. Anticoagulant therapy after acute myocardial infarction. JAMA 222:541, 1972.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Cairns JA, Hirsh J, Lewis HD Jr, et al. Antithrombotic agents in coronary artery disease. Chest 102:456S, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Goldberg RJ, Gore JM, Dalen JE, et al. Long term anticoagulant therapy after acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 109:616, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Leizorovicz A, Boissel JP. Oral anticoagulant in patients surviving myocardial infarction. Fur J Clin Pharmacol 24:333, 1983.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Chalmers TC, Matta RJ, Smith H Jr, Kunzler-A-M. Evidence favoring the use of anticoagulants in the hospital phase of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 297:1091, 1977.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Loeliger EA. Oral anticoagulation in patients surviving myocardial infarction: A new approach to old data. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 26:137, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Bjerkelund CJ. The effect of long term treatment with dicoumarol in myocardial infarction: A controlled clinical study. Acta Med Scand Suppl 330:13, 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  161. British Medical Reasarch Council. An assessment of long-term anticoagulant administration after cardiac infarction. Br Med J 2:837, 1964.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  162. Aspenström G, Korsan-Bengsren K. A double blind study of dicumarol prophylaxis in coronary heart disease. Acta Med Scand 176:563, 1964.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  163. Rozenberg MC, Kronenberg H, Firkin BG. “Thrombotest” and prothrombin time: A controlled clinical trial. Aust Ann Med 14:3, 1965.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Loeliger EA, Hensen A, Kroes F, et al. A doubleblind trial of long-term anticoagulant treatment after myocardial infarction. Acta Med Scand 182:549, 1967.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Meuwissen OJ, Vervoon AC, Cohen O, Jordan FL, Nelemans FA. Double blind trial of long-term anticoagulant treatment after myocardial infarction. Acta Med Scand 186:361, 1969.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Sørensen OH, Friis T, Jørgensen AW, Jørgensen MB, Nissen NL. Anticoagulant treatment of acute coronary thrombosis. Acta Med Scan 185:65, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  167. The Sixty Plus Reinfarction Study Research Group. A double-blind trial to assess long-term oral anticoagulant therapy in elderly patients after myocardial infarction. Lancet 2:989, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Mac Millan RI, Brown KWG, Watt DL. Long-term anticoagulant therapy after myocardial infarction. Can Med Assoc J 83:567, 1960.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Harvald B, Hilden T, Lund E. Long-term anticoagulant therapy after myocardial infarction. Lancet 2:626, 1962.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Clausen J, Andersen PE, Andersen P, et al. Langtidsantikoagulansbehandling efter akut hjerteifarkt. Ugeskr Laeger 123:987, 1961.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Conard LL, Kyriacopoulos JD, Wiggins CW, Honick GL. Prevention of recurrences of myocardial infarction: A double-blind study of the effectiveness of long-term oral anticoagulant therapy. Arch Intern Med 114:348, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  172. Lovell RR, Denborough MA, Nestel PJ, Goble AJ. A controlled trial of long-term treatment with anticoagulants after myocardial infarction in 412 male patients. Med J Aust 2:97, 1967.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Ebert RV. Long-term anticoagulant therapy after myocardial infarction: Final report of the Veterans Administration cooperative study. JAMA 207:2263, 1969.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Seaman AJ, Grisworld HE, Reaume RB, Ritzmann L. Long-tem anticoagulant prophylaxis after myocardial infarction: First report. N Engl J Med 281:115, 1969.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Ritland S, Lygern T. Comparison of efficacy of 3 and 12 months’ anticoagulant therapy after myocardial infarction. Lancet 1:122, 1969.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Breddin K, Loew D, Lechner K, Uberla K, Walter E. Secondary prevention or myocardial infarction: A comparison of acetylsalicylic acid, placebo and phenprocoumon. Haemostasis 9:325, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. The E.P.S.I.M. Research Group. A controlled comparison of aspirin and oral anticoagulants in prevention ot death after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 307:701, 1982.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  178. Goldman L, Feinstein AR. Anticoagulants and myocardial infarction: The problems of pooling, drowning, and floating. Ann Intern Med 90:92, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Yusuf S, Wittes J, Friedman L. Overview of results of randomized clinical trials in heart disease I. Treatments following myocardial infarction. JAMA 260:2088, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Smith P, Arnesen H, Holme I. The effect of warfarin in mortality and reinfarction after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 323:147, 1990.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. ASPECT Research Group. Effect of long-term oral anticoagulant treatment on mortality and cardiovascular morbidity after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 323:147, 1990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  182. Kretschmer G, Wenzl E, Schemper M, et al. Influence of post-operative anticoagulant treatment of patient survival after femoropopliteal vein bypass surgery. Lancet 343:499, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  183. Levine H, Pauker S, Eckman M. Antithrombotic therapy in valvular heart disease. Chest 108(Suppl.):360S, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  184. Barnett HJM, Mc Donald JWD, Sacket L. Aspirin: Effective in mlaes threatened with stroke. Stroke 9:295, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Hirosowitz GS, Saffer D. Hemiplegia and billowing mitral leaflet syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 41:381, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  186. Barnett HJM, Boughner DR, Taylow DW. Further evidence relating mitral valve prolapse to cerebral ischemic events. N Engl J Med 302:139, 1980.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Guthrie RB, Edwards JE. Pathology of myxomatous mitral valve: Nature, secondary changes and complications. Minn Med 59:637, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Geyer SJ, Franzini DA. Myxomatous degeneration of the mitral valve complicated by nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis with systemic embolization. Am J Clin Pathol 72:489, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Fuster V, Gersh BJ, Guiliani ER, Tajik AJ, Brandenberg RO, Frye RL. The natural history of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 47:525, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Gottdiener JS, Gay JA, VanVoorhees L, Dibianco R, Fletcher RD. Frequency and embolic potential of left ventricular thrombus in dilated cardiomyopathy: Assessment by two-dimensional echocardiography. Am J Cardiol 52:1281, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Tobin R, Slutsky RA, Higgins CB. Serial echocardiograms in patients with congestive cardiomyopathies: Lack of evidence for thrombus formation. Clin Cardiol 7:99, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Lapeyre AC, Steele PP, Kazmier FJ, et al. Systemic embolism in chronic left ventricular aneurysm: Incidence and role of anticoagulation. J Am Coll Cardiol 6:534, 1985.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Meltzer R, Visser CA, Fuster V. Intracardiac thrombi and systemic embolization. Ann Intern Med 104:689, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Hamby RJ, Wisoff G, Davison ET, Hartstein ML. Coronary artery disease and left ventricular mural thrombi: Clinical, hemodynamic, and angiocardiographic aspects. Chest 66:488, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Simpson MT, Oberman A, Kouchoukos NT, Rogers WJ. Prevalence of mural thrombi and systemic embolization with left ventricular aneurysm: Effect of anticoagulation therapy. Chest 77:463, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Reeder GS, Lengyel M, Tajik AJ, Seward JB, Smith HC, Danielson GK. Mural thrombus in lelt ventricular aneurysm: Incidence, role of angiography, and relation between anticoagulation and embolization. Mayo Clin Proc 80:118, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  197. de Iturbe Allesio I, Carmen Fonesca M, Mutchinik O, et al. Risks of anticoagulant therapy in pregnant women with artificial heart valves. N Engl J Med 315:1390, 1986.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  198. Ezekowitz MD. Systemic Cardiac Embolism, New York: Marcel Dekker, 308, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  199. Altman R, Rouvier J, Gurfinkel E, et al. Comparison of two levels of anticoagulant therapy in patients with substitute heart valves. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 101:427, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Reza Khoshnevis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. James J. Ferguson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Cardiovascular Thrombosis Research Center, USA

    Richard C. Becker M.D. (Director) (Director)

  2. Coronary Care Unit, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts

    Richard C. Becker M.D. (Director) (Director)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1997 Kluwer Academic Publishers

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Khoshnevis, R., Ferguson, J.J. (1997). Monitoring Chronic Oral Anticoagulant Therapy. In: Becker, R.C. (eds) Textbook of Coronary Thrombosis and Thrombolysis. Developments in Cardiovascular Medicine, vol 193. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-585-33754-8_38

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-585-33754-8_38

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-7923-9923-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-585-33754-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation