Abstract
The prospects for Gigascale integration and beyond are hindered, in the near term, by increasingly higher RC delays in global and semi-global electrical interconnect systems. Long-term, signal transmission delays are projected to become significantly more challenging due to fundamental limits imposed by the basic laws of physics. As feature sizes shrink below the mean free path for electron scattering in conventional metal wires, surface scattering, which is defined as the scattering of electron waves from the boundaries of ultra narrow conductors, severely hinders electronic conductivity and stands as a major roadblock to Moore’s Law at the most fundamental level.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Edelstein, D.; Heidenreich, J.; Goldblatt, R. D.; Cote, W.; Uzoh, C.; Lustig, N.; Roper, P.; McDevitt, T.; Wachnik, R.; Rathore, H.; Luce, S.; and Slattery, J.: Full Copper Wiring in a Sub-0.25 μm CMOS ULSI Technology. Tech. Digest IEEE, International Electron Devices Meeting, 773–776 (1997)
Goldblatt, R. D.; Agarawala, B.; Anand, M. B.; Barth, E. P.; Biery, G. A.; Chen, Z. G.; Cohen, S.; Connolly, J. B.; Cowley, A.; Dalton, T.; Das, S. K.; Davis, C. R.; Deutsch, A.; DeWan, C.; Edelstein, D. C.; Emmi, P. A.; Faltermeier, C. G.; Fitzsimmons, J. A.; Hedrick, J.; Heidenreich, J. E.; Hu, C. K.; Hummel, J. P.; Jones, P.; Kaltalioglu, E.; Kastenmeier, B. E.; Krishnan, M.; Landers, W. F.; Liniger, E.; Liu, J.; Lustig, N. E.; Malhotra, S.; Manger, D. K.; McGahay, V.; Mih, R.; Nye, H. A.; Purushothaman, S.; Rathore, H. A.; Seo, S. C.; Shaw, T. M.; Simon, A. H.; Spooner, T. A.; Stetter, M.; Wachnik, R. A.; and Ryan, J. G.: A High Performance 0.13 pm Copper BEOL Technology with Low-k Dielectric. Presentation at the International Interconnect Technology Conference, Burlingame, CA (2000)
El-Kareh, B.: Fundamentals of Semiconductor Processing Technologies, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, 552 (1995)
Singer, P.: Changing the Promise of Faster Chips. Semicond. Int. 11, 52 (1994)
Hu, C.-K.; Luther, B.; Kaufman, F. B.; Hummel, J.; Uzoh, C.; and Pearson, D. J.: Copper interconnection integration and reliability. Thin Solid Films 262, 84 (1995)
Kaanta, C. W.; Bombardier, S. G.; Cote, W. J.; Hill, W. R.; Kerszykowski, G.; Landis, H. S.; Poindexter, D. J.; Pollard, C. W.; Ross, G. H.; Ryan, J. G.; Wolff, S.; and Cronin, J. E.: Dual-Damascene: a ULSI wiring technology. Proceedings of the 8th International VLSI Multilevel Interconnection Conference, 144 (1991)
Zhu, Y.: Integration of Atomic Layer Deposition Tantalum Nitride and Platinum with Electrochemical Deposition of Copper for Interconnect Technology, Ph.D. Thesis, College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering of the University at Albany-SUNY, (2006)
Lee, B.: Electroless CoWP boosts copper reliability, device performance. Semicond. Int. 7, 95 (2004)
Ritala, M. and Leskela, M.: In Handbook of Thin film Materials. Nalwa, H., Ed. Deposition and Processing of Thin Films, Academic Press 1, 103 (2002)
Ramm, P.; Klumpp, A.; Merkel, R.; Weber, J.; Wieland, R.; Ostmann A.; and Wolfe, J.: 3D System Integration Technologies. Mat. Res. Soc.766, E5.6.1 (2003)
Fukushima, T.; Yamada, Y.; Kikuchi, H.; and Koyanagi, M.: New 3D Integration technology using chip to wafer bonding to achieve ultimate super-chip integration. Jap. J. Appl. Phys. 45(4B), 3030–3035, (2006)
Niklaus, F.; Stemme, G.; Lu, J.-Q.; and Gutmann, R. J.: Adhesive wafer bonding. J. Appl. Phys. 99, 031101-01-031101-28 (2006)
Islam, R.; Brubaker, C.; Lindner P.; and Schaefer, C.: Wafer Level Packaging and 3D Interconnect for IC Technology. IEEE/SEMI Advanced Semiconductor Manufacturing Conference, 212–217 (2002)
Xu, B.; Gracias, A.; Tokranova, N.; and Castracane, J.: Wafer Bonding for 3D Integration of MEMS/CMOS. to be published, MOEMS and Miniaturized Systems, (2006)
Fletcher, C.; Skele, M.; and Castracane, J.: Recent Developments in Vertically Integrated Sensor Arrays. Proceedings-GOMAC, (2005)
Reichl, H. and Ramm, P.: 3D System Integration. Fraunhofer IZM Bulletin, (2006); Wieland, R.; Ramm, P.; and Schulz, S.: Fraunhofer IZM Annual Report, 115 (2002); Ramm, P.; Klumpp, A.; Merkel, R.; Weber, J.; Weiland, R; Ostmann, A.; and Wolf, J.: 3D system integration technologies. Proc. Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. 766, 3 (2003)
Pascual, D.: Fabrication and Assembly of 3D MEMS Devices. Solid State Technol. 48, 22 (2005)
Alexe, M. and Gosele, U.: Wafer Bonding Applications and Technology, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, (2004)
Iyer, S. S. and Auberton-Herve, A. J.: Silicon Wafer Bonding Technology for VLSI and MEMS, INSPEC, London, (2002)
Heath, J.: The Bridge (National Academy of Engineering) 33(4), 197 (2003)
Li, H. J.; Ly, W. G.; Li, J. J.; Bai, X. D.; and Gu, C. Z.: Multichannel Ballistic Transport in Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes. Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 086601 (2005)
Kaloyeros, A. E.; Dunn, K. A; Carlsen A. T.; and Topol, A. W.: Carbon Nanotube Interconnects invited article for the Marcel Dekker Encyclopedia of NanoScience and NanoTechnology. Schwarz, J. A.; Contescu, C. I.; and Putyera, K.Eds. 1, 435–446 (2004)
Iijima, S.: Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. Nature (London) 354(6348), 56 (1991)
Dresselhaus, M. S.; Dresselhaus, G.; and Eklund, P. C.: Science of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes; Academic Press.; San Diego, US (1996)
Ajayan, P. M. and Ebbesen, T. W.: Nanometre-size tubes of carbon. Rep. Prog. Phys. 60, 1025 (1997)
Martel, R.; Schmidt, T.; Shea, H. R.; Hertel, T.; and Avouris, Ph.: Single and multi-wall carbon nanotube field-effect transistors. Appl. Phys. Lett. 73(17), 2447 (1998)
Tans, S. J.; Verschueren, R. M.; and Dekker, C.: Room-temperature transistor based on a single carbon nanotube. Nature 393, 49 (1998)
Charlier, J.-C.; and Iijima, S.: Electronic properties, junctions, and defects of carbon nanotubes. In Growth mechanisms of Carbon Nanotubes, Dresselhaus, M. S.; Dresselhaus, G.; Avouris, Ph., Eds. Topics A Physics; Springer-Verlag Heidelberg, Berlin, 80, 55 (2001)
Ebbesen, T. W. and Ajayan, P. M.: Large-scale synthesis of carbon nanotubes. Nature 358, 220 (1992)
Li, W. Z.; Xie, S. S.; Qian, L. X.; Chang, B. H.; Zou, B. S.; Zhou, W. Y.; Zhao A.; and Wang, G.: Large-scale synthesis of aligned carbon nanotubes. Science 274, 1701 (1996)
Ren, Z. F.; Huang, Z. P.; Xu, J. W.; Wang, J. H.; Bush, P.; Siegal, M. P.; and Prevencio, P. N.: Synthesis of large arrays of well-aligned carbon nanotubes on glass. Science 282, 1105 (1998)
Collins, P. G.; Arnold, Ml S.; and Avouirs, P.: Engineering carbon nanotubes and nanotube circuits using electrical breakdown. Science 292(5517), 706 (2001)
Kaloyeros, A. E; Dunn, K. A; Carlsen, A. T.; and Topol, A. W.: Carbon Nanotube Interconnects. In Dekker Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 435 (2003)
Iijima, S. and Ichihashi, ST.: Single-shell carbon nanotubes of 1-nm diameter. Nature (London) 363(6430), 603 (1993)
Bethune, D. S.; Kiang, C. H.; Devries, M. S.; Gorman, G.; Savoy, R.; Vazquea, J.; and Beyers, R.: Cobalt-catalysed growth of carbon nanotubes with single-atomic-layer walls. Nature (London) 363(6430), 605 (1993)
Ajayan, P. M.; Lambert, J. M.; Bernier, P.; Barbedette, L.; Colliex, C.; and Planeix, J. M.: Growth morphologies during cobalt-catalyzed single-shell carbon nanotube synthesis. Chem. Phys. Lett. 215(5), 509 (1993)
Kong, J.; Soh, H. T.; Cassell, A. M.; Quate, C. F.; and Dai, H.: Synthesis of individual single-walled carbon nanotubes on patterned silicon wafers. Nature 395(6705), 878 (1998)
Saito, R.; and Dresselhaus, M. S.; and Dresselhaus, M. S.: Electronic structure of double-layer graphene tubules. J. Appl. Phys. 73(2), 494 (1993)
Terrones, M.; Grobert, N.; Olivares, J.; Zhang, J. P.; Terrones, H.; Kardatos, K.; Hsu, W. K.; Hare, J. P.; Townshend, P. D.; Prassides, K.; Cheetham, A. K.; Kroto, H. W.; and Walton D. R. M.: Controlled production of aligned-nanotube bundles. Nature 388, 52 (1997)
Guo, T.; Jin, C.-M.; and Smalley, R. E.: Catalytic growth of single-walled nanotubes by laser vaporization. Chem. Phys. Lett. 243(1–2), 49 (1995)
Louie, S. G.: Electronic properties, junctions, and defects of carbon nanotubes. In Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications, Dresselhaus, M. S., Dresselhaus, G., Avouris, Ph., Eds. Topics App. Physics; Springer-Verlag Heidelberg, Berlin 80, 113 (2001)
Stahl, H.: Electronic transport in ropes of single wall carbon nanotubes. In Dissertation approved by the Faculty for Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences at the Aachen University of Technology (2000)
Tans, S. J.; Devoret, M. H.; Dai, H., Thess, A. Smalley, R. E.; Geerligs, L. J.; and Dekker, C.: Individual single-wall carbon nanotubes as quantum wires. Nature (London) 386(6624), 474 (1997)
Bockrath M.; Cobden, D. H.; McEuen, P. L.; Chopra, N. G.; Zettl, A.; Thess, A.; and Smalley, R. E.: Single-electron transport in ropes of carbon nanotubes. Science 275(5308), 1922 (1997)
Yakobson, Boris I. and Avouris, Ph.: Mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes. In Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications, Dresselhaus, M. S., Dresselhaus, G., Avouris, Ph., Eds; Topics App. Physics; Springer-Verlag Heidelberg, Berlin 80, 287 (2001)
Wong, E. W.; Sheehan, P. E.; and Lieber, C. M.: Nanobeam mechanics: Elasticity, strength, and toughness of nanorods and nanotubes. Science 277(5334), 1971 (1997)
Yu, M. F.; Lourie, O.; Dyer, M.; Moloni, K.; and Rouff, R. S.: Strength and breaking mechanism of multiwalled carbon nanotubes under tensile load. Science 287(5453), 637 (2000)
Dresselhaus, M. S. and Endo, M.: Relation of carbon nanotubes to other carbon materials. In Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications, Dresselhaus, M. S., Dresselhaus, G., Avouris, Ph., Eds. Topics App. Physics; Springer-Verlag Heidelberg, Berlin 80, 11 (2001)
Ajayan, P. M.; Schadler, L. S.; Giannaris, C.; and Rubio, A.: Mechanical response of singlewalled carbon nanotubes in polymer nanocomposites. Adv. Mater. 12, 750 (2000)
Yakobson, B. I.; Brabec, C. J.; and Bernholc, J.: Nanomechanics of carbon tubes: instabilities beyond linear response. Phys. Rev. Lett. 76(14), 2511 (1996)
Ajayan, P. M.; Ebbesen, T. W.; Ichihashi, T.; Iijima, S.; Tanigaki, K.; and Hiura, H.: Opening carbon nanotubes with oxygen and implications for filling. Nature 362(6420), 522 (1999)
Fischer, J. E.; Dai, H.; Thess, A.; Lee, R.; N. Hanjani, M.; Dehaas, D. L.; and Smalley R. E.: Metallic resistivity in crystalline ropes of single-wall carbon nanotubes. Phys. Rev. B 55, R4921 (1997)
Frank, S.; Poncharal, P.; Wang, Z. L.; and de Heer, W. A.: Carbon nanotube quantum resistors. Science 280, 1744 (1998)
Hertel, T; Walkup, R. E; and Avpuris, P: Deformation of carbon nanotubes by surface van der Walls forces. Phys. Rev. B 58(20), 13870 (1998)
Fuhrer, M. S.; Nygård, J.; Shih, L.; Ferero, M.; Yoon, Y.-G.; Mazzoni, M. S. C.; Choi, H. J.; Ihm, J.; Louie, S. G.; Zettl, A.; and McEuen, P. L.: Crossed nanotube junctions. Science 288 (5465), 494 (2000)
Kane, C. L.; and Mele, E. J.: Size, shape, and low energy electronic structure of carbon nanotubes. Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 1932 (1997)
Terrones, M.; Banhart, F.; Grobert, N.; Charlier, J.-C.; Terrones H.; and Ajayan, P. M.: Molecular junctions by joining single-walled carbon nanotubes. Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 075505-1 (2002)
Stahl, H.; Appenzeller, J.; Martel, R.; and Avouris, Ph.: Intertube coupling in ropes of single-wall carbon nanotubes. Phys. Rev. Lett. 85(24), 5186 (2000)
Farró, L. and Schönenberger, C.: Physical properties of multi-wall nanotubes. In Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications, Dresselhaus, M. S., Dresselhaus, G., Avouris, Ph., Eds. Topics App. Physics; Springer-Verlag Heidelberg, Berlin, 80, 329 (2001)
Vajtai, R.; Wei, B. Q.; Zhang, Z. J.; Jung, Y.; Ramanath G.; and Ajayan, P. M.: Building carbon nanotubes and their smart architecture. Smart Mater. Struct.11, 691 (2002)
Scuseria, G. E.: The equilibrium structures of giant fullerenes: Faceted or spherical shape? An ab initio Hartree-Fock study. Chem. Phys. Lett. 195, 534 (1992)
Chico, L.; Crespi, V. H.; Benedict, L. X.; Louie, S. G.; and Cohen, M. L.: Pure carbon nanoscale devices: Nanotube heterojunctions. Phys. Rev. Lett. 76(6-7), 971 (1996)
Menon, M.; and Srivastava, D.: Carbon nanotube t junctions: Nanoscale metal semiconductor metal contact devices. Phys. Rev. Lett. 79(22), 4453 (1997)
Yao Z.; Postma, H. W. Ch.; Balents, L.; and Dekker, C.: Carbon nanotube intermolecular junctions. Nature (London) 402, 273 (1999)
Choi W. B. and Lee, Y. H.: Carbon nanotube and its application to nanoelectronics. Industrial Applications of Electron Microscopy; Li, Z. Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, Chapter 14, 614 (2002)
Kong, J.; Soh, H. T.; Cassell, A. M.; Quate, C. F.; and Dai, H. J.: Synthesis of individual single-walled carbon nanotubes on patterned silicon wafers. Nature 395, 878 (1998)
Tans, T. J.; Verschueren, R. M.; and Dekker, C.: Room-temperature transistor based on a single carbon nanotube. Nature 393, 49 (1998)
Martel, R.; Schmidt, T.; Shea, H. R.; Hertel, T.; Avouris, Ph.: Single and multi wall nanotube field effect transistors. Appl. Phys. Lett. 73(17), 2447 (1998)
Wei, B.-Q.; Kohler-Redlich, P.; Bader, U.; Heiland, B.; Spolenak, R.; Arzt E.; Ruhle, M.: Selective specimen preparation for TEM observation of the cross section of individual carbon nanotube/metal junctions. Ultramicroscopy 85(2) 93 (2000)
Kaloyeros, A. E, Welch, J.; Castracane J.; Oktyabrsky, S.; Geer, R.; and Dovidenko, K.: Interconnect Nanotechnology. Overarching Concepts and Demonstration Vehicles. Annual review of the Interconnect Focus Center 2002, Atlanta, GA, (2002)
Sagnes, M.; Broto, J.-M.; Raquet, B.; Ondarçuhu, T.; Laurent, Ch.; Flahaut, E.; Vieu, Ch.; and Carcenac, F.: Alignment and nano-connections of isolated carbon nanotubes. Microelectron. Eng. 67–68, 683 (2003)
Austin, D. W.; Puretzky, A. A; Geohegan, D. B.; Britt, P. F.; Guillorn M. A.; and Simpson, M. L.: The electrodeposition of metal at metal/carbon nanotube junctions. Chem. Phys. Lett. 361, 525 (2002)
Boulas C.; Davidovits, J. V.; Rondelez, F.; and Vuillaume, D.: Suppression of charge carrier tunneling through organic self-assembled monolayers. Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 4797 (1996)
Mujica, V. and Ratner, M. A.: In Handbook of Nanoscience, Engineering, and Technology. Goddard III W. A. et al., eds. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. (2002)
Rochefort, A.; Martel, R.; and Avouris, P.: Electrical Switching in π-Resonant 1D ntermolecular Channels. Nano Lett. 2(8), 877 (2002)
Heath, J. and Ratner, M.: Molecular electronics. Phys. Today 56(5), 43 (2003)
Fishelson, N.; Shkrob, I.; Lev, O.; Gun, J.; and Modestov, A. D.: Studies on charge transport in self-assembled gold-dithiol films: Conductivity, photoconductivity, and photoelectrochemical measurements. Langmuir 17(2), 403 (2001)
Eigler, D. M. and Schweizer, E. K.: Positioning single atoms with a scanning tunneling microscope. Nature 344, 524 (1990)
Piner, R. D.; Zhu, J.; Xu, F.; Hong, S.; and Mirkin, C. A.: Dip pen nanolithography. Science 283, 661–663 (1999)
Hodneland, C. D.; Lee, Y.-S.; Min, A.-H.; and Mrksich, M.: Supramolecular chemistry and self-assembly special feature: Selective immobilization of proteins to self-assembled monolayers presenting active site-directed capture ligands. PNAS 99, 5048 (2002)
Molecular Electronics: Biosensors and Biocomputers Hong, F., Ed. Plenum Press, New York (1989)
Kikkawa, J. M. and Awschalom, D. D.: Lateral drag of spin coherence in gallium arsenide. Nature 397, 139 (1999)
Flatté, M. E. and Byers, J. M.: Spin diffusion in semiconductors. Phys. Rev. Lett. 84(18), 4220 (2000)
Ohno, H.: Making nonmagnetic semiconductors ferromagnetic. Science 281(5379), 951 (1998)
Bolduc, M.; Awo-Affouda, C.; Stollenwerk, A.; Huang, M. B.; Ramos, F. G.; Agnello, G.; and LaBella, V. P.: Above room temperature ferromagnetism in Mn-ion implanted Si. Phys. Rev. B 71, 033302 (2005)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kaloyeros, A.E. et al. (2009). Emerging Nanoscale Interconnect Processing Technologies: Fundamental and Practice. In: Shacham-Diamand, Y., Osaka , T., Datta, M., Ohba, T. (eds) Advanced Nanoscale ULSI Interconnects: Fundamentals and Applications. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-95868-2_34
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-95868-2_34
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-95867-5
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-95868-2
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)