Mixing materials of different compositions is an ancient art. As early as 3000 B.C., metallic alloys - brass & bronze were used for sculpture work. Over the last century, major strides were made in the art of crystal growth of metals, dielectrics, and semiconductors. An alloy offers an opportunity to exploit physical, electrical, and optical properties of materials which are either intermediate, or absent in its constituent materials. This has been the driving force behind the study and discovery of new generations of alloys. With the advent of epitaxial growth techniques such as Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) and Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD), such hybrid materials can now be engineered at the atomic scale.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
. E. archive New Semiconductor Materials Characteristics and Properties http://www.ioffe. rssi.ru/SVA/NSM/ .
. P. Yu and M. Cardona, Fundamentals of Semiconductors, Physics and Materials Properties. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1st ed., 1996.
O. Ambacher, B. Foutz, J. Smart, J. R. Shealy, N. G. Weimann, K. Chu, M. Murphy, A. J. Sierakowski, W. J. Schaff, L. F. Eastman, R. Dimitrov, A. Mitchell, and M. Stutzmann, “Two-dimensional electron gases induced by spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization in undoped and doped AlGaN/GaN heterostructures,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 87, p. 334, 2000.
C. Mailhiot and D. L. Smith, “Electronic structure of [001]- and [111]-growth-axis semiconductor superlattices,” Phys. Rev. B, vol. 35, p. 1242, 1987.
D. C. Look and R. J. MolnarAppl. Phys. Lett., vol. 70, p. 3377, 1997.
J. W. P. Hsu, D. V. Lang, S. Richter, R. N. Kleiman, A. M. Sergent, and R. J. Molnar Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 77, p. 2673, 2000.
S. Heikman, S. Keller, S. P. DenBaars, and U. K. Mishra Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 81, p. 439, 2002.
J. P. Ibbetson, P. T. Fini, K. D. Ness, S. P. DenBaars, J. S. Speck, and U. K. Mishra, “Polarization effects, surface states, and the source of electrons in AlGaN/GaN heterostructure field effect transistors,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 77, p. 250, 2000.
S. Keller, S. Heikman, L. Shen, I. P. Smorchkova, S. P. DenBaars, and U. K. Mishra Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 80, p. 4387, 2002.
P. Waltereit, O. Brandt, A. Trampert, H. T. Grahn, J. Menniger, M. Ramsteiner, M. Reiche, and K. Ploog, “Nitride semiconductors free of electrostatic fields for efficient white light-emitting diodes,” Nature, vol. 406, p. 865, 2000.
R. Cingolani, A. Botchkarev, H. Tang, H. Morkoç, G. Traetta, G. Coli, M. Lomascolo, A. Di Carlo, F. Della Sala, and P. LugliPhys. Rev. B, vol. 61, p. 2711, 2000.
U. K. Mishra, P. Parikh, and Y. F. Wu, “AlGaN/GaN HEMTS: An overview of device operation and applications,” Proceedings of the IEEE., vol. 90, p. 1022, 2002.
A. Jimenez, D. Buttari, D. Jena, R. Coffie, S. Heikman, N. Zhang, L. Shen, E. Calleja, E. Munoz, J. Speck, and U. K. MishraIEEE Elect. Dev. Lett., vol. 23, p. 306, 2002.
T. F. Kuech, R. T. Collins, D. L. Smith, and C. Mailhiot, “Field-effect transistor structure based on strain-induced polarization charges,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 67, p. 2650, 1990.
E. S. Snow, B. V. Shanabrook, and D. Gammon Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 56, p. 758, 1990.
P. Kozodoy, I. P. Smorchkova, M. Hansen, H. Xing, S. P. DenBaars, U. K. Mishra, A. W. Saxler, R. Perrin, and W. C. Mitchel J. Appl. Phys., vol. 75, p. 2444, 1999.
P. M. Asbeck, E. T. Yu, S. S. Lau, W. Sun, X. Dang, and C. Shi, “Enhancement of base conductivity via the piezoelectric effect in AlGaN/GaN HBTs,” Solid-State Electron., vol. 44, p. 211, 2000.
M. Singh, Y. Zhang, J. Singh, and U. K. Mishra Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 77, p. 1867, 2000.
L. Pfeiffer, K. W. West, H. L. Stormer, and K. W. Baldwin Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 55, p. 1888, 1989.
M. Shayegan, T. Sajoto, M. Santos, and C. Silvestre Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 53, p. 791, 1988.
A. C. Gossard, M. Sundaram, and P. F. Hopkins, Epitaxial Microstructures, Semiconductors and Semimetals, vol 40. San Diego: Academic Press, 1st ed., 1994.
B. Heying, R. Averbeck, L. F. Chen, E. Haus, H. Riechert, and J. S. Speck J. Appl. Phys., vol. 88, p. 1855, 2000.
O. Brandt, P. Waltereit, and K. Ploog J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., vol. 35, p. 577, 2002.
. G. L. Snider 1DPoisson, http://www.nd.edu/ gsnider/.
F. Bernardini, V. Fiorentini, and D. Vanderbilt, “Spontaneous polarization and piezoelectric constants of III-V nitrides,” Phys. Rev. B, vol. 56, p. R10 024, 1997.
W. G. Götz, N. M. Johnson, C. Chen, H. Liu, C. Kuo, and W. Imler Appl. Phy. Lett., vol. 68, p. 3144, 1996.
J. Simon, K. Wang, H. Xing, D. Jena, and S. Rajan, “Carrier transport and confinement in polarization-induced 3D electron slabs: Importance of alloy scattering in AlGaN,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 88, p. 042-109, 2006.
S. Rajan, S. DenBaars, U. K. Mishra, H. Xing, and D. Jena, “Electron mobility in graded AlGaN alloys,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 88, p. 042-103, 2006.
D. Jena, A. C. Gossard, and U. K. Mishra, “Dipole scattering in polarization induced III-V Nitride two-dimensional electron gases,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 88, p. 4734, 2000.
W. Zhao and D. Jena, “Dipole scattering in Highly Polar Semiconductor Alloys,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 96, p. 2095, 2004.
D. N. Quang, N. H. Tung, N. V. Tuoc, N. V. Minh, and P. N. Phong, “Roughness-induced piezoelectric charges in wurtzite group-III-nitride heterostructures,” Phys. Rev. B, vol. 72, p. 115-337, 2005.
L. M. Roth and P. M. Argyres Semiconductors and Semimetals, vol. 1, p. 159, 1966.
. C. Hamaguchi Basic Semiconductor Physics, p. 280, 2001.
R. B. DingleProc. Roy. Soc., vol. A211, p. 517, 1952.
R. Kubo, H. Hasegawa, and N. Hashitsume J. Phys. Soc. Japan, vol. 14, p. 56, 1959.
D. Jena, S. Heikman, J. S. Speck, A. C. Gossard, U. K. Mishra, A. Link, and O. Ambacher, “Magnetotransport properties of a polarization-doped three-dimensional electron slab,” Phys. Rev. B, vol. 67, p. 153-306, 2003.
G. Bauer and H. Kahlert, “Low-Temperature Non-Ohmic Galvanomagnetic Effects in Degenerate n-type InAs,” Phys. Rev. B, vol. 5, p. 566, 1972.
Y. Katayama and S. TanakaPhys. Rev., vol. 153, p. 873, 1967.
M. R. Boon Phys Rev. B, vol. 7, p. 761, 1973.
B. L. Altshuler, D. Khmelnitzkii, I. A. Larkin, and P. A. Lee Phys Rev. B, vol. 22, p. 5142, 1980.
T. Wang, Y. Ohno, M. Lachab, D. Nakagawa, T. Shirahama, S. Sakai, and H. Ohno Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 74, p. 3531, 1995.
A. F. Brana, C. Diaz-Paniagua, F. Batallan, J. A. Garrido, E. Munoz, and F. Omnes J. Appl. Phys., vol. 88, p. 932, 2000.
R. J. Sladek Phys Rev., vol. 110, p. 817, 1958.
I. Vurgaftman, J. R. Meyer, and L. R. Ram-Mohan J. Appl. Phys., vol. 89, p. 8815, 2001.
S. Elhamri, R. S. Newrock, D. B. Mast, M. Ahoujja, W. C. Mitchel, J. M. Redwing, M. A. Tischler, and J. S. Flynn Phys Rev. B, vol. 57, p. 1374, 1998.
W. Knap, S. Contreras, H. Alause, C. Skierbiszewski, J. Camassel, M. Dyakonov, J. L. Robert, J. Yang, Q. Chen, M. A. Khan, M. L. Sadowski, S. Huant, F. H. Yang, M. Goian, J. Leotin, and M. S. Shur Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 70, p. 2123, 1997.
A. Saxler, P. Debray, R. Perrin, S. Elhamri, W. C. Mitchel, C. R. Elsass, I. P. Smorchkova, B. Heying, E. Haus, P. Fini, J. P. Ibbetson, S. Keller, P. M. Petroff, S. P. DenBaars, U. K. Mishra, and J. S. Speck J. Appl. Phys., vol. 87, p. 369, 2000.
Z. W. Zheng, B. Shen, R. Zhang, Y. S. Gui, C. P. Jiang, Z. X. Ma, G. Z. Zheng, S. L. Gou, Y. Shi, P. Han, Y. D. Zheng, T. Someya, and Y. Arakawa Phys Rev. B, vol. 62, p. R7739, 2000.
D. Jena and U. K. Mishra, “Quantum and classical scattering times due to charged dislocations in an impure electron gas,” Phys. Rev. B, vol. 66, p. 241-307, 2002.
J. P. Harrang, R. J. Higgins, R. K. Goodall, P. R. Ray, M. Laviron, and P. Delescluse Phys Rev. B, vol. 32, p. 8126, 1985.
L. Hsu and W. Walukiewicz Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 80, p. 2508, 2002.
W. Walukiewicz, P. F. Hopkins, M. Sundaram, and A. C. Gossard Phys Rev. B., vol. 44, p. 10909, 1991.
D. Jena and U. K. Mishra, “Quantum and classical scattering times due to dislocations in an impure electron gas,” Phys. Rev. B, vol. 66, p. 241307(Rapids), 2002.
. B. I. Halperin, “Possible States of a Three-Dimensional Electron Gas in a Strong Magnetic Field,” Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., vol. 26, p. (suppl.3), 1987.
R. Gaska, M. S. Shur, X. Hu, J. W. Yang, A. Tarakji, G. Simin, A. Khan, J. Deng, T. Werner, S. Rumyantsev, and N. Pala Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 78, p. 769, 2001.
M. A. Khan, A. R. Bhattarai, J. N. Kuznia, and D. T. Olson Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 63, p. 1214, 1993.
S. C. Binari, L. B. Rowland, W. Kruppa, G. Kelner, K. Doverspike, and D. K. GatskillElectron. Lett., vol. 30, p. 1248, 1994.
J. C. Zolper, R. J. Shul, A. G. Baca, R. G. Wilson, S. J. Pearton, and R. A. Stall Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 68, p. 2273, 1996.
T. Egawa, K. Nakamura, H. Ishikawa, T. Jimbo, and M. UmenoJpn. J. Appl. Phys. Part 1, vol. 38, p. 2630, 1999.
L. Zhang, L. F. Ester, A. G. Baca, R. J. Shul, P. C. Chang, C. G. Willinson, U. K. Mishra, S. P. DenBaars, and J. C. Zolper, “Epitaxially-grown GaN junction field effect transistors,” IEEE Trans. El. Dev., vol. 47, p. 507, 2000.
S. Rajan, H. Xing, S. DenBaars, U. K. Mishra, and D. Jena, “AlGaN/GaN polFETs for microwave power applications,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 84, p. 1591, 2004.
Matulionis, A., “High-Field transport in III-V Nitride FETs - a Hot Phonon Bottleneck,” Hot Carriers in Semiconductors (Conference), Chicago, p. (In press), 2005.
K. Wang, J. Simon, N. Goel, and D. Jena, “Optical study of hot-electron transport in GaN: Signatures of the hot-phonon effect,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 88, p. 022-103, 2006.
C. H. Oxley and M. J. Uren, “Measurement of Unity Gain Cutoff Frequency and Saturation Velocity of a GaN HEMT Transistor,” IEEE Trans. Electron. Dev., vol. 52, no. 2, p. 165, 2005.
Liberis, J. Ramons, M. Kiprijanovic, O. Matulionis, A. Goel, N. Simon, J. Wang, K. Xing, H. Jena, D., “Hot-phonons in Si-doped GaN,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 89, p. 202-117, 2006.
E. Fatuzzo and W. J. Merz, Ferroelectricity. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967.
J. Smit and H. P. J. Wijn, Ferrite. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959.
E. Salje, Phase Transitions in Ferroelastic and Co-elastic Crystals. Cambridge: Cambridge Univeristy Press, 1990.
L. Landau and E. Lifshitz, Statistical Physics. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1980.
R. Kretschmer and K. Binder, “Surface effects on phase transitions in ferroelectrics and dipole magnets,” Physical Review B, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 1065-1075, 1979.
B. Strukov and A. Levanyuk, Ferroelectric Phenomena in Crystals. Berlin: Spring-Verlag, 1998.
L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Electrodynamics of Continuous Media, vol. 8. Butterworth-Heinemann: Elsevier, 2nd ed., 1984.
L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Theory of Elasticity, vol. 7. Butterworth-Heinemann: Elsevier, 2nd ed., 1984.
N. A. Pertsev, A. G. Zembilgotov, and A. K. Tagantsev, “Effect of mechanical boundary conditions on phase diagrams of epitaxial ferroelectric thin films,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 80, no. 9, pp. 1988-1991, 1998.
N. Sai, B. Meyer, and D. Vanderbilt, “Compositional inversion symmetry breaking in ferroelectric perovskites,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 84, pp. 5636-5639, 2000.
N. Sai, K. M. Rabe, and D. Vanderbilt, “Theory of structural response to macroscopic electric fields in ferroelectric systems,” Physical Review B, vol. 66, pp. 104108-104125, 2002.
J. B. Neaton and K. M. Rabe, “Thoery of polarization enhancement in epitaxial batio3/srtio3 superlattices,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 82, no. 10, pp. 1586-1588, 2003.
J. Mantese, N. Schubring, A. L. Micheli, M. Mohammed, R. Naik, and G. W. Auner, “Slater model applied to polarization graded ferroelectrics,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 71, no. 14, pp. 2047-2049, 1997.
J. Mantese, N. Schubring, A. L. Micheli, M. Thompson, R. Naik, G. W. Auner, I. B. Misirlioglu, and S. P. Alpay, “Stress induced polarization-graded ferroelectrics,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 81, p. 1068, 2002.
W. Fellberg, J. Mantese, N. Schubring, and A. L. Micheli, “Origin of the ”up”, ”down” hysteresis offsets observed from polarization-graded ferroelectric materials,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 78, no. 4, pp. 524-526, 2001.
A. L. Roytburd and J. Slutsker, “Thermodynamics of polydomain ferroelectric bilayers and graded multilayers,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 89, no. 4, p. 042-907, 2006.
R. Slowak, S. Hoffmann, R. Liedtke, and R. Waser, “Functional Graded High-K (Ba1− x Sr x )TiO3 Thin Films for Capacitor Structures with Low Temperature Coeffcient,” Integrated Ferroelectrics, vol. 24, p. 169, 1999.
L. B. Freund, “Some elementary connections between curvature and mismatch strain in compositionally graded thin films,” Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 723-736, 1996.
. “The average spontaneous polarization P S and the in-plane self-strain are approximately 0.68 Coul /m 2 and 1 percent for PT and 0.23 Coul /m 2 and 0.1 percent for BT.”
G. H. Haertling, “Rainbow ceramic-a new type of ultra-high-displacement actuator,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin, vol. 73, no. 1, p. 93, 1994.
. G. H. Haertling, “Method for making monolithic prestressed ceramic devices,” 1995.
W. D. Nothwang, M. W. Cole, and R. W. Schwartz, “Stressed-biased actuators: Fatigue and lifetime,” Integrated Ferroelectrics, vol. 71, pp. 249-255, 2005.
R. W. Schwartz, L. E. Cross, and Q. M. Wang, “Estimation of the effective d(31) coefficients of the piezoelectric layer in rainbow actuators,” Journal of the American Ceramic Society, vol. 84, no. 11, pp. 2563-2569, 2001.
K. M. Mossi, G. V. Selby, and R. G. Bryant, “Thin-layer composite unimorph ferroelectric driver and sensor properties,” Materials Letters, vol. 35, no. 1-2, pp. 39-49, 1998.
K. M. Mossi, R. G. Bryant, and P. Mane, “Piezoelectric composites as bender actuators,” Integrated Ferroelectrics, vol. 71, pp. 221-232, 2005.
Z.-G. Ban, S. P. Alpay, and J. Mantese, “Fundamentals of graded ferroic materials and devices,” Physical Review B, vol. 67, p. 184-104, 2003.
A. Ohtomo and H. Y. Hwang, “A high-mobility electron gas at the laalo3/srtio3 heterointerface,” Nature, vol. 427, pp. 423-426, 2004.
J. Mannhart and D. G. Schlom, “Semiconductor physics: The value of seeing nothing,” Nature, vol. 430, pp. 620-621, 2004.
H. Y. Hwang, “Perovskites: Oxygen vacancies shine blue,” Nature Materials, vol. 4, pp. 803-804, 2005.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Jena, D., Alpay, S.P., Mantese, J.V. (2008). Functionally Graded Polar Heterostuctures: New Materials for Multifunctional Devices. In: Wood, C., Jena, D. (eds) Polarization Effects in Semiconductors. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-68319-5_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-68319-5_7
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-36831-3
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-68319-5
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)