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Notes
Darwin, C. (1998). The descent of man, Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books (first published, 1871).
A good comprehensive discussion of ancient hominid fossils and artefacts can be found in: Wolpoff, M.H. (1999). Paleoanthropology, 2nded., Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. An interesting synopsis of the history of civilization has been provided by: Wright, R. (2004). A short history of progress, Toronto, Ontario: House of Anansi Press, Inc.
Data on brain volumes in apes, modern humans and human ancestors can be found in: Semendeferi, K., and Damasio, H. (2000). The brain and its main anatomical subdivisions in living hominids using magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Human Evolution, 38: 317–332, and in Tobias, P.V. (1988). The brain of Homo habilis: A new level of organization in cerebral evolution. Journal of Human Evolution, 16: 741–761.
Leakey, M.D., and Hay, R.L. (1979). Pliocene footprints in the Laetoli beds, northern Tanzania, Nature, London, 278: 317–323.
White, T.D., and Suwa, G. (1987). Hominid footprints at Laetoli: facts and interpretation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 72: 485–514.
The classic account of the behavior of wild chimpanzees is: Goodall, J. (1986). The chimpanzees of Gombe: patterns of behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Napier, J.R. and Napier, P.H. (1985). The natural history of primates. London: British Museum (Natural History), p. 53.
Schmid, H. (1971). Foot skills in children with severe upper limb deficiencies. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 25: 159–163. Smithells, R.W. (1973). Defects and disabilities of thalidomide children. British Medical Journal, 1: 269–272. The comment quoted is from Smithells’ paper.
Lack, D. (1983). Darwin’s finches. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, pp 58–59.
Smith, S.M. (1972). The ontogeny of impaling behaviour in the loggerhead shrike, Lanius ludovicianus L. Behaviour, 42: 232–247.
Abrams, H.L., Jr. (1987). The preference for animal protein and fat: A cross-cultural survey. In: M. Harris and E.B. Ross (eds.) Food and evolution, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, pp. 207–223.
Draper, H.H. (1977). The aboriginal Eskimo diet in modern perspective. American Anthropologist, 79: 309–316. Lieb, C.W. (1926). The effects of an exclusive long-continued meat diet, based on the history, experiences and clinical survey of Vilhjalmur Stefansson, Artic explorer. Journal of the American Medical Association, 87: 25–26. Lieb, C.W. (1929). The effects on human beings of a twelve month’s exclusive meat diet. Journal of the American Medical Association, 93: 20–22. Stefansson, V. (1960). Food and food habits in Alaska and northern Canada. In: I. Galdston (ed.) Human nutrition: Historic and scientific, Monograph III. The New York Academy of Medicine, New York: International Universities Press, pp. 23–60.
Innis, H.A. (1962). The fur trade in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, p 235 ff. (first published 1930). The manufacture of pemmican is described by: Steele, S.B. (1973). Forty years in Canada: Reminiscenses of the great north-west, Toronto: Coles Publishing Company, see pp. 95–96 (first published in 1915).
Martin, P.S., and Klein, R.G. (eds, 1984). Quaternary extinctions: a prehistoric revolution. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. Although there is a good deal of circumstantial evidence that human hunting was a primary cause of the extinction of many animals, it has not been possible to prove this in a rigorous way and show that other factors such as disease or changes in climate were not responsible.
Oliver, J.S. (1994). Estimates of hominid and carnivore involvement in the FLK Zinjanthropus fossil assemblage: some socioecological implications. Journal of Human Evolution, 27: 267–294.
de Heinzelin, J., Clark, J.D., White, T., Hart, W., Renne, P., Wolde Gabriel, G., Beyene, Y., and Vrba, E. (1999). Environment and behavior of 2.5-million-year old Bouri hominids. Science, 284: 625–629.
A good source-book for information about digestion and other aspects of physiology in various domestic animals is: Swenson, M.J., and Reece, W.O. (eds). Dukes’ physiology of domestic animals 11th ed. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993.
Martin, R.D., Chivers, D.J., MacLarnon, A.M., and Hladik, C.M. (1985). Gastrointestinal allometry in primates and other mammals. In: W.L. Jungers (ed.) Size and scaling in primate biology, New York: Plenum Press, pp. 61–89.
Hoberg, E.P., Alkive, N.L., de Queiroz, A., and Jones, A. (2001). Out of Africa: origins of the Taenia tapeworms in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 268: 781–787.
Morris, J.G., and Rogers, Q.R. (1982). Metabolic basis for some of the nutritional peculiarities of the cat. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 23: 599–613.
A good discussion of dietary deficiency diseases can be found in: E. Braunwald, S.L. Hauser, A.S. Fauci, D.L. Longo, D.L. Kasper, and J.L. Jameson (eds.) Harrison’s principles of internal medicine, 15th ed. 2001. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 451–469. A more biochemically oriented discussion is presented in: A. White, P. Handler, E.L. Smith, R.L. Hill and I.R. Lehman (1978). Principles of biochemistry, New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 1320–1379. Dietary absorption of iron is discussed by Monsen, E.R., Hallberg, L., Layrisse, M., Hegsted, D.M., Cook, J.D., Mertz, W., and Finch, C.A. (1978). Estimation of available dietary iron. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 31: 134–141.
Washburn, S.L., and Lancaster, C.S. (1968). The evolution of hunting. In: R.B. Lee and I. DeVore (eds) Man the hunter. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, pp. 293–303.
Sprue is discussed in the references in note #21.
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A classic discussion of the larger implications of predation can be found in: Errington, P.L. (1967). Of predation and life. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
Coon, C.S. (1971). The hunting peoples. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Also see: Bicchieri, M.G. (ed., 1972). Hunters and gatherers today. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Foster, G.D., Wyatt, H.R., Hill, J.O., McGuckin, B.G., Brill, C., Mohammed, B.S., Szapary, P.O., Rader, D.J., Edman, J.S., and Klein, S. (2003). A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet for obesity. The New England Journal of Medicine, 348: 2082–2090.
Struever, S. (ed.) (1971). Prehistoric agriculture, Garden City, New York: The American Museum of Natural History, The Natural History Press.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989). Human ethology, New York; Aldine de Gruyter.
Murdock, G.P. (1965). Culture and society, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 308–310.
Teleki, G. (1973). The predatory behaviour of wild chimpanzees, Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press.
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Kimura, D. (2000). Sex and cognition, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Ireland, M.L. and Nattiv, A. (eds. 2002). The female athlete, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Elsevier Science.
An excellently preserved spear, 2.3 m in length and made from an individual spruce tree that had been debarked and shaped like a modern javelin with a heavy front end, a sharp tip, and a long tapering tail was found in German geological deposits estimated to be about 400,000 years old [Thieme, H. (1997). Lower paleolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature, 385: 807–810]. Such a spear, having good aerodynamic properties which would cause it to travel long distances in a point-first orientation when thrown, suggest that spear-making was already an ancient and well-understood art nearly half a million years ago. Associated with this spear were other wooden tools, worked flints, and over 1,000 large mammal bones, many bearing the marks of butchering.
Etkin, W. (1954). Social behaviour and the evolution of man’s mental faculties. The American Naturalist, 88: 129–142.
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Short, R.V. (1979). Sexual selection and its component parts, somatic and genital selection, as illustrated by men and the great apes. Advances in the study of behaviour, 9: 131–158.
Daly, M., and Wilson, M. (1978). Sex, evolution and behaviour, Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Glickman, S.E., and Sroges, R.W. (1966). Curiosity in zoo animals. Behaviour, 26: 151–188.
A non-exhaustive list of hypotheses to account for bipedalism, loss of body hair, and various other characteristics of modern humans can be found in the following papers: a) Cant, J.G.H. (1981). Hypothesis for the evolution of human breasts and buttocks. American Naturalist, 117: 199–204. b) Ebling, J. (1985). The mythological evolution of nudity. Journal of Human Evolution, 14: 33–41. c) Hunt, K.D. (1994). The evolution of human bipedality: Ecology and functional morphology. Journal of Human Evolution, 26: 183–202. d) Jablonski, N.G., and Chaplin, G. (1993). Origin of habitual terrestrial bipedalism in the ancestor of the Hominidae. Journal of Human Evolution, 24: 259–280. e) Kushlan, J.A. (1985). The vestiary hypothesis of human hair reduction. Journal of Human Evolution, 14: 29–32. f) Rodman, P.S., and McHenry, H.M. (1980). Bioenergetics and the origin of hominid bipedalism. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 52: 103–106. g) Sheets-Johnstone, M. (1989). Hominid bipedality and sexual selection theory. Evolutionary Theory, 9: 57–70. h) Sanford, C.B. (1999). The hunting apes: meat eating and the origins of human behaviour. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. i) Wheeler, P.E. (1984). The evolution of bipedality and loss of functional body hair in hominids. Journal of Human Evolution, 13: 91–98. j) Wheeler, P.E. (1985). The loss of functional body hair in man: the influence of thermal environment, body form, and bipedality. Journal of Human Evolution, 14: 23–28. k) Wheeler, P.E. (1993). The influence of stature and body form on hominid energy and water budgets: A comparison of Australopithecus and early Homo physiques. Journal of Human Evolution, 24: 13–28.
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(2007). Human origins and adaptations. In: The Evolving Brain. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-34230-6_4
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