Infectious diseases have continually played a role in shaping human history. The plague pandemic of the 13th century claimed approximately 25% of the world’s population. Dysentery decimated the forces of Napoleon, and tuberculosis, also known as “the white plague,” condemned many of history’s most influential leaders, writers, artists, and scientists to untimely deaths, often in their most productive years. Thus, it was assumed that with the introduction of antimicrobial agents into clinical medicine during the 20th century, the conquest of infectious diseases was likely to be close at hand. Yet, a closer examination of the medical literature beginning in the 1940s reveals an ominous trend that would be repeated over and over again throughout the next several decades: The discovery of virtually every new antimicrobial agent effective against bacteria was followed sooner or later by the recognition of bacterial resistance to the agent. How bacteria develop resistance to antimicrobial agents and how resistant microorganisms spread in hospitals, other health-care settings, and communities will be the focus of this chapter.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abraham, E. P., and Chain, E. An enzyme from bacteria able to destroy penicillin. Nature. 146: 837–839, 1940.
Kirby, W. M. M. Extraction of a highly potent penicillin inactivator from penicillin resistant staphylococci. Science. 99: 452–455, 1944.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis, United States, 1993–2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 55: 301–305, 2006.
Cohen, M. L. Epidemiology of drug resistance: implications for a post-antimicrobial era. Science. 257: 1050–1055, 1992.
Burke, J. P. Antibiotic resistance—squeezing the balloon? JAMA. 280: 1270–1271, 1998.
Swartz, M. N. Use of antimicrobial agents and drug resistance. New Eng J Med. 337: 491–492, 1997.
Leclercq, R., Derlot, E., Duval, J., and Courvalin, P. Plasmid-mediated resistance to vancomycin and teicoplanin in Enterococcus faecium. N Engl J Med. 319: 157–161, 1988.
McGowan, J. E., Jr. Minimizing antimicrobial resistance: the key role of the infectious diseases physician. Clin Infect Dis. 38: 939–942, 2004.
McDonald, L. C. Trends in antimicrobial resistance in health care-associated pathogens and effect on treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 42 Suppl 2: S65–71, 2006.
Tenover, F. C. Development and spread of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents: an overview. Clin Infect Dis. 33(Suppl 3): S108–S115, 2001.
Wood, M. J., and Moellering, R. C., Jr. Microbial resistance: bacteria and more. Clin Infect Dis. 36: S2–3, 2003.
Diekema, D. J., BootsMiller, B. J., Vaughn, T. E., Woolson, R. F., Yankey, J. W., Ernst, E. J., Flach, S. D., Ward, M. M., Franciscus, C. L., Pfaller, M. A., and Doebbeling, B. N. Antimicrobial resistance trends and outbreak frequency in United States hospitals. Clin Infect Dis. 38: 78–85, 2004.
McGowan, J. E., Jr. Resistance in nonfermenting gram-negative bacteria: multidrug resistance to the maximum. Am J Med. 119: S29–36; discussion S62–70, 2006.
Rehm, S. J., and Weber, J. T. The far-reaching impact of antimicrobial resistance. Clin Infect Dis. 45 (Suppl 2): S97–S98, 2007.
Tenover, F. C., McDougal, L. K., Goering, R. V., Killgore, G., Projan, S. J., Patel, J. B., and Dunman, P. M. Characterization of a strain of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus widely disseminated in the United States. J Clin Microbiol. 44: 108–118, 2006.
Rice, L. B. Antimicrobial resistance in gram-positive bacteria. Am J Med. 119: S11–19; discussion S62–70, 2006.
Burke, C., Armand-Lefevre, L., Lolom, I., Guerinot, W., Deblangy, C., Ruimy R, Andremont, A., and Lucet, J-C. Epidemiology of multidrug-resistant bacteria in patients with long stays. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 28: 1255–1260, 2007.
Shorr, A. F. Epidemiology of staphylococcal resistance. Clin Infect Dis. 45 (Suppl 3): S171–S176, 2007.
Seybold, U., Kourbatova, E. V., Johnson, J. G., Halvosa, S. J., Wang, Y. F., King, M. D., Ray, S. M., and Blumberg, H. M. Emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 genotype as a major cause of health care-associated blood stream infections. Clin Infect Dis. 42: 647–656, 2006.
Neu, H. C. Overview of mechanisms of bacterial resistance. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 12: Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 1989.
Bonnet, R. Growing group of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: the CTX-M enzymes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 48: 1–14, 2004.
Normark, B. H., and Normark, S. Evolution and spread of antibiotic resistance. J Intern Med. 252: 91–106, 2002.
Edlin, B. R., Tokars, J. I., Grieco, M. H., Crawford, J. T., Williams, J., Sordillo, E. M., et al. An outbreak of multidrug resistant tuberculosis among hospitalized patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 326: 1514–1521, 1992.
John, J. F., Jr., and Rice, L. B. The microbial genetics of antibiotic cycling. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 21(Suppl): S22–S31, 2000.
Hawkey, P. M. The origins and molecular basis of antibiotic resistance. Brit Med J. 317: 657–660, 1998.
Lockhart, S. R., Abramson, M. A., Beekmann, S. E., Gallagher, G., Riedel, S., Diekema, D. J., Quinn, J. Pl, and Doern, G. V. Antimicrobial resistance among gram-negative bacilli causing infections in intensive care unit patients in the United States between 1993 and 2004. J Clin Microbiol. 45: 3352–3359, 2007.
McGowan, J. E., Jr., and Tenover, F. C. Confronting bacterial resistance in healthcare settings: a crucial role for microbiologists. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2: 251–258, 2004.
Trick, W. E., Kuehnert, M. J., Quirk, S. B., Arduino, M. J., Aguero, S. M., Carson, L. A., Hill, B. C., Banerjee, S. N., and Jarvis, W. R. Regional dissemination of vancomycin-resistant enterococci resulting from interfacility transfer of colonized patients. J Infect Dis. 180: 391–396, 1999.
Robicsek, A., Strahilevitz, J., Jacoby, G. A., Macielag, M., Abbanat, D., Park, C. H., Bush, K., and Hooper, D. C. Fluoroquinolone-modifying enzyme: a new adaptation of a common aminoglycoside acetyltransferase. Nat Med. 12: 83–88, 2006.
Harris, A., Torres-Viera, C., Venkataraman, L., DeGirolami, P., Samore, M., and Carmeli, Y. Epidemiology and clinical outcomes of patients with multiresistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Infect Dis. 28: 1128–1133, 1999.
Kollef, M. H. The intensive care unit as a research laboratory: developing strategies to prevent antimicrobial resistance. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 7: 85–99, 2006.
Struelens, M. J. Multidisciplinary antimicrobial management teams: the way forward to control antimicrobial resistance in hospitals. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 16: 305–307, 2003.
Wilke, M. S., Lovering, A. L., and Strynadka, N. C. Beta-lactam antibiotic resistance: a current structural perspective. Curr Opin Microbiol. 8: 525–533, 2005.
Smith, A. M., and Klugman, K. P. Amino acid mutations essential to production of an altered PBP 2X conferring high-level beta-lactam resistance in a clinical isolate of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 49: 4622–4627, 2005.
Paterson, D. L., and Bonomo, R. A. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: a clinical update. Clin Microbiol Rev. 18: 657–686, 2005.
Yigit, H., Queenan, A. M., Anderson, G. J., Domenech-Sanchez, A., Biddle, J. W., Steward, C. D., Alberti, S., Bush, K., and Tenover, F. C. Novel carbapenem-hydrolyzing beta-lactamase, KPC-1, from a carbapenem-resistant strain of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 45: 1151–1161, 2001.
Bradford, P. A., Bratu, S., Urban, C., Visalli, M., Mariano, N., Landman, D., Rahal, J. J., Brooks, S., Cebular, S., and Quale, J. Emergence of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella species possessing the class A carbapenem-hydrolyzing KPC-2 and inhibitor-resistant TEM-30 beta-lactamases in New York City. Clin Infect Dis. 39: 55–60, 2004.
Gaynor, M., and Mankin, A. S. Macrolide antibiotics: binding site, mechanism of action, resistance. Curr Top Med Chem. 3: 949–961, 2003.
Shaw, K. J., Rather, P. N., Hare, R. S., and Miller, G. H. Molecular genetics of aminoglycoside resistance genes and familial relationships of the aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes. Microbiol Rev. 57: 138–163, 1993.
Davies, J. Inactivation of antibiotics and the dissemination of resistance genes. Science. 264: 375–382, 1994.
Speer, B. S., Shoemaker, N. B., and Salyers, A. A. Bacterial resistance to tetracycline: mechanisms, transfer, and clinical significance. Clin Microbiol Rev. 5: 387–399, 1992.
Olson, M. W., Ruzin, A., Feyfant, E., Rush, T. S., 3rd, O’Connell, J., and Bradford, P. A. Functional, biophysical, and structural bases for antibacterial activity of tigecycline. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 50: 2156–2166, 2006.
Skold, O. Resistance to trimethoprim and sulfonamides. Vet Res. 32: 261–273, 2001.
Courvalin, P. Vancomycin resistance in gram-positive cocci. Clin Infect Dis. 42 Suppl 1: S25–34, 2006.
Depardieu, F., Perichon, B., and Courvalin, P. Detection of the van alphabet and identification of enterococci and staphylococci at the species level by multiplex PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 42: 5857–5860, 2004.
Cui, L., Murakami, H., Kuwahara-Arai, K., Hanaki, H., and Hiramatsu, K. Contribution of a thickened cell wall and its glutamine nonamidated component to the vancomycin resistance expressed by Staphylococcus aureus Mu50. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 44: 2276–2285, 2000.
Hanaki, H., Kuwahara-Arai, K., Boyle-Vavra, S., Daum, R. S., Labischinski, H., and Hiramatsu, K. Activated cell-wall synthesis is associated with vancomycin resistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strains Mu3 and Mu50. J Antimicrob Chemother. 42: 199–209, 1998.
Tenover, F. C., Lancaster, M. V., Hill, B. C., Steward, C. D., Stocker, S. A., Hancock, G. A., O’Hara, C. M., Clark, N. C., and Hiramatsu, K. Characterization of staphylococci with reduced susceptibilities to vancomycin and other glycopeptides. J Clin Microbiol. 36: 1020–1027, 1998.
Andriole, V. T. The quinolones: past, present, and future. Clin Infect Dis. 41 Suppl 2: S113–119, 2005.
Jacoby, G. A. Mechanisms of resistance to quinolones. Clin Infect Dis. 41 Suppl 2: S120–126, 2005.
Robicsek, A., Jacoby, G. A., and Hooper, D. C. The worldwide emergence of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance. Lancet Infect Dis. 6: 629–640, 2006.
Pillai, S. K., Sakoulas, G., Wennersten, C., Eliopoulos, G. M., Moellering, R. C., Jr., Ferraro, M. J., and Gold, H. S. Linezolid resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: characterization and stability of resistant phenotype. J Infect Dis. 186: 1603–1607, 2002.
Woodford, N., Tysall, L., Auckland, C., Stockdale, M. W., Lawson, A. J., Walker, R. A., and Livermore, D. M. Detection of oxazolidinone-resistant Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium strains by real-time PCR and PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. J Clin Microbiol. 40: 4298–4300, 2002.
Paterson, D. L. The role of antimicrobial management programs in optimizing antibiotic prescribing within hospitals. Clin Infect Dis. 42 Suppl 2: S90–95, 2006.
Knothe, H., Shah, P., Krcmery, V., Antal, M., and Mitsuhashi, S. Transferable resistance to cefotaxime, cefoxitin, cefamandole and cefuroxime in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Serratia marcescens. Infection. 11: 315–317, 1983.
DeFlaun, M. F., and Levy, S. B. Genes and their varied hosts. In S. B. Levy, and R. V. Miller (Eds.), Gene transfer in the environment, New York: McGraw Hill Publishing Co, 1991. pp. 1–32.
Murray, B. E., Mederski-Samoraj, B., Foster, S. K., Brunton, J. L., and Harford, P. In vitro studies of plasmid-mediated penicillinase from Streptococcus faecalis suggest a staphylococcal origin. J Clin Invest. 77: 289–293, 1986.
Kaufhold, A., Podbielski, A., Horaud, T., and Ferrieri, P. Identical genes confer high-level resistance to gentamicin upon Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, and Streptococcus agalactiae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 36: 1215–1218, 1992.
Rovers, M. M., Glasziou, P., Appelman, C. L., Burke, P., McCormick, D. P., Damoiseaux, R. A., Gaboury, I., Little, P., and Hoes, A. W. Antibiotics for acute otitis media: a meta-analysis with individual patient data. Lancet. 368: 1429–1435, 2006.
Kieke, A. L., Borchardt, M. A., Kieke, B. A., Spencer, S. K., Vandermause, M. F., Smith, K. E., Jawahir, S. L., and Belongia, E. A. Use of Streptogramin Growth Promoters in Poultry and Isolation of Streptogramin-Resistant Enterococcus faecium from Humans. J Infect Dis. 194: 1200–1208, 2006.
Wegener, H. C. Antibiotics in animal feed and their role in resistance development. Curr Opin Microbiol. 6: 439–445, 2003.
Aarestrup, F. M. Veterinary drug usage and antimicrobial resistance in bacteria of animal origin. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 96: 271–281, 2005.
Akiba, T., Koyama, K., Ishiki, Y., Kimura, S., and Fukushima, T. On the mechanism of the development of multiple-drug-resistant clones of Shigella. Jpn J Microbiol. 4: 219–227, 1960.
Tompkins, L. S., Plorde, J. J., and Falkow, S. Molecular analysis of R-factors from multiresistant nosocomial isolates. J Infect Dis. 141: 625–636, 1980.
O’Brien, T. F., Pla, M. P., Mayer, K. H., Kishi, H., Gilleece, E., Syvanen, M., and Hopkins, J. D. Intercontinental spread of a new antibiotic resistance gene on an epidemic plasmid. Science. 230: 87–88, 1985.
Grinsted, J., de la Cruz, F., and Schmitt, R. The Tn21 subgroup of bacterial transposable elements. Plasmid. 24: 163–189, 1990.
Clewell, D. B., and Gawron-Burke, C. Conjugative transposons and the dissemination of antibiotic resistance in streptococci. Annu Rev Microbiol. 40: 635–659, 1986.
Shoemaker, N. B., Smith, M. D., and Guild, W. R. Organization and transfer of heterologous chloramphenicol and tetracycline resistance genes in pneumococcus. J Bacteriol. 139: 432–441, 1979.
Shoemaker, N. B., Barber, R. D., and Salyers, A. A. Cloning and characterization of a Bacteroides conjugal tetracycline-erythromycin resistance element by using a shuttle cosmid vector. J Bacteriol. 171: 1294–1302, 1989.
Norrby, S. R. Integrons: adding another threat to the use of antibiotic therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 41: 10–11, 2005.
Fridkin, S. K., Steward, C. D., Edwards, J. R., Pryor, E. R., McGowan, J. E., Jr., Archibald, L. K., Gaynes, R. P., Tenover, F. C., and Project Intensive Care Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemiology (ICARE) Hospitals Surveillance of antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in United States hospitals: Project ICARE phase 2. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29: 245–252, 1999.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System report, data summary from January 1990–May 1999, issued June 1999. Am J Infect Control. 27: 520–532, 1999.
Fridkin, S. K., Hill, H. A., Volkova, N. V., Edwards, J. R., Lawton, R. M., Gaynes, R. P., and McGowan, J. E., Jr. Temporal changes in prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in 23 US hospitals. Emerg Infect Dis. 8: 697–701, 2002.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 to June 2002, issued August 2002. Am J Infect Control. 30: 458–475, 2002.
Rodriguez-Bano, J., and Paterson, D. L. A change in the epidemiology of infections due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing organisms. Clin Infect Dis. 42: 935–937, 2006.
Fridkin, S. K., Hageman, J. C., Morrison, M., Sanza, L. T., Como-Sabetti, K., Jernigan, J. A., Harriman, K., Harrison, L. H., Lynfield, R., and Farley, M. M. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus disease in three communities. N Engl J Med. 352: 1436–1444, 2005.
Fridkin, S. K., Hageman, J., McDougal, L. K., Mohammed, J., Jarvis, W. R., Perl, T. M., and Tenover, F. C. Epidemiological and microbiological characterization of infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin, United States, 1997–2001. Clin Infect Dis. 36: 429–439, 2003.
Chang, S., Sievert, D. M., Hageman, J. C., Boulton, M. L., Tenover, F. C., Downes, F. P., Shah, S., Rudrik, J. T., Pupp, G. R., Brown, W. J., Cardo, D., and Fridkin, S. K. Infection with vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus containing the vanA resistance gene. N Engl J Med. 348: 1342–1347, 2003.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus—Pennsylvania, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 51: 902, 2002.
Raney, P. M., Williams, P. P., McGowan, J. E., and Tenover, F. C. Validation of Vitek version 7.01 software for testing staphylococci against vancomycin. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 43: 135–140, 2002.
Liu, C., and Chambers, H. F. Staphylococcus aureus with heterogeneous resistance to vancomycin: epidemiology, clinical significance, and critical assessment of diagnostic methods. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 47: 3040–3045, 2003.
Bush, K. Antibacterial drug discovery in the 21st century. Clin Microbiol Infect. 10 Suppl 4: 10–17, 2004.
Schito, G. C. The importance of the development of antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect. 12 Suppl 1: 3–8, 2006.
Paterson, D. L. Resistance in gram-negative bacteria: enterobacteriaceae. Am J Med. 119: S20–28; discussion S62–70, 2006.
Pavleas, J., Skiada, A., Daikos, G. L., Rigas, K., Mega, A., Archondoulis, N., Vernikos, P., Salatas, K., and Thomopoulos, G. Colistin in the treatment of life-threatening infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 28: 374–376, 2006.
Falagas, M. E., Kasiakou, S. K., Kofteridis, D. P., Roditakis, G., and Samonis, G. Effectiveness and nephrotoxicity of intravenous colistin for treatment of patients with infections due to polymyxin-only-susceptible (POS) gram-negative bacteria. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 25: 596–599, 2006.
Paterson, D. L. The epidemiological profile of infections with multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter species. Clin Infect Dis. 43 Suppl 2: S43–48, 2006.
Tenover, F. C. Mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. Am J Med. 119: S3–10; discussion S62–70, 2006.
Goldstein, E. J., Citron, D. M., Warren, Y. A., Tyrrell, K. L., Merriam, C. V., and Fernandez, H. T. In vitro activities of dalbavancin and 12 other agents against 329 aerobic and anaerobic gram-positive isolates recovered from diabetic foot infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 50: 2875–2879, 2006.
McCarthy, M. Resistant bacteria spread through US communities. 70% of isolates are now resistant to all beta-lactam antibiotics. Lancet. 362: 1554–1555, 2003.
Pearman, J. W. 2004 Lowbury Lecture: the Western Australian experience with vancomycin-resistant enterococci—from disaster to ongoing control. J Hosp Infect. 63: 14–26, 2006.
Reddy, P., Malczynski, M., Obias, A., Reiner, S., Jin, N., Huang, J., Noskin, G. A., and Zembower, T. Screening for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae among high risk patients and rates of subsequent bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis. 45: 846–852.
Kahlmeter, G., and Brown, D. F. Resistance surveillance studies—comparability of results and quality assurance of methods. J Antimicrob Chemother. 50: 775–777, 2002.
Draghi, D. C., Sheehan, D. F., Hogan, P., and Sahm, D. F. Current antimicrobial resistance profiles among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus encountered in the outpatient setting. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006.
Appelbaum, P. C. The emergence of vancomycin-intermediate and vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect. 12 Suppl 1: 16–23, 2006.
Cosgrove, S. E., Carroll, K. C., and Perl, T. M. Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis. 39: 539–545, 2004.
Gemmell, C. G., Edwards, D. I., Fraise, A. P., Gould, F. K., Ridgway, G. L., and Warren, R. E. Guidelines for the prophylaxis and treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in the UK. J Antimicrob Chemother. 57: 589–608, 2006.
Muto, C. A., Jernigan, J. A., Ostrowsky, B. E., Richet, H. M., Jarvis, W. R., Boyce, J. M., and Farr, B. M. SHEA guideline for preventing nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and enterococcus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 24: 362–386, 2003.
Willems, R. J., Top, J., van Santen, M., Robinson, D. A., Coque, T. M., Baquero, F., Grundmann, H., and Bonten, M. J. Global spread of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium from distinct nosocomial genetic complex. Emerg Infect Dis. 11: 821–828, 2005.
Menichetti, F. Current and emerging serious Gram-positive infections. Clin Microbiol Infect. 11 Suppl 3: 22–28, 2005.
Siegel, J. D., Rheinhart, E., Jackson, M., Chiarello, L., and Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Management of multi-drug resistant organisms in healthcare settings, 2006. In, Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006. pp. 73 pages.
Fridkin, S. K., Edwards, J. R., Courval, J. M., Hill, H., Tenover, F. C., Lawton, R., Gaynes, R. P., McGowan, J. E., Jr., Intensive Care Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemiology (ICARE) Project, and National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Hospitals The effect of vancomycin and third-generation cephalosporins on prevalence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in 126 U.S. adult intensive care units. Ann Intern Med. 135: 175–183, 2001.
Silveira, F., Fujitani, S., and Paterson, D. L. Antibiotic-resistant infections in the critically ill adult. Clin Lab Med. 24: 329–341, 2004.
Fournier, P. E., and Richet, H. The epidemiology and control of Acinetobacter baumannii in health care facilities. Clin Infect Dis. 42: 692–699, 2006.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Acinetobacter baumannii infections among patients at military medical facilities treating injured U.S. service members, 2002–2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 53: 1063–1066, 2004.
Zhang, R., Eggleston, K., Rotimi, V., and Zeckhauser, R. J. Antibiotic resistance as a global threat: Evidence from China, Kuwait and the United States. Global Health. 2: 6, 2006.
Niyogi, S. K., Sarkar, K., Lalmalsawma, P., Pallai, N., and Bhattacharya, S. K. An outbreak of bacillary dysentery caused by quinolone-resistant Shigella dysenteriae type 1 in a northeastern state of India. J Health Popul Nutr. 22: 97, 2004.
Rahman, M., Siddique, A. K., Shoma, S., Rashid, H., Salam, M. A., Ahmed, Q. S., Nair, G. B., and Breiman, R. F. Emergence of multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi with decreased ciprofloxacin susceptibility in Bangladesh. Epidemiol Infect. 134: 433–438, 2006.
Levison, M. E., and Fung, S. Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: reconsideration of therapeutic options. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 8: 23–30, 2006.
Moellering, R. C., Jr. The growing menace of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Ann Intern Med. 144: 368–370, 2006.
Sun, H. Y., Chen, S. Y., Chang, S. C., Pan, S. C., Su, C. P., and Chen, Y. C. Community-onset Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia: influence of health care exposure on antimicrobial susceptibility. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006.
Manges, A. R., Natarajan, P., Solberg, O. D., Dietrich, P. S., and Riley, L. W. The changing prevalence of drug-resistant Escherichia coli clonal groups in a community: evidence for community outbreaks of urinary tract infections. Epidemiol Infect. 134: 425–431, 2006.
Kallen, A. J., Welch, H. G., and Sirovich, B. E. Current antibiotic therapy for isolated urinary tract infections in women. Arch Intern Med. 166: 635–639, 2006.
Klugman, K. Pneumococcal resistance to antibiotics. Clin Microbiol Rev. 3: 171–196, 1990.
Johnson, D. M., Stilwell, M. G., Fritsche, T. R., and Jones, R. N. Emergence of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1999–2003). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006.
Lynch, J. P., 3rd, and Zhanel, G. G. Escalation of antimicrobial resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae: implications for therapy. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 26: 575–616, 2005.
Hoffman, J., Cetron, M. S., Farley, M. M., Baughman, W. S., Facklam, R. R., Elliott, J. A., Deaver, K. A., and Breiman, R. F. The prevalence of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in Atlanta. N Engl J Med. 333: 481–486, 1995.
Okeke, I. N., Laxminarayan, R., Bhutta, Z. A., Duse, A. G., Jenkins, P., O’Brien, T. F., Pablos-Mendez, A., and Klugman, K. P. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part I: Recent trends and current status. Lancet Infect Dis. 5: 481–493, 2005.
Peterson, L. R. Penicillins for treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia: does in vitro resistance really matter? Clin Infect Dis. 42: 224–233, 2006.
Feikin, D. R., Klugman, K. P., Facklam, R. R., Zell, E. R., Schuchat, A., and Whitney, C. G. Increased prevalence of pediatric pneumococcal serotypes in elderly adults. Clin Infect Dis. 41: 481–487, 2005.
Kyaw, M. H., Lynfield, R., Schaffner, W., Craig, A. S., Hadler, J., Reingold, A., Thomas, A. R., Harrison, L. H., Bennett, N. M., Farley, M. M., Facklam, R. R., Jorgensen, J. H., Besser, J., Zell, E. R., Schuchat, A., and Whitney, C. G. Effect of introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med. 354: 1455–1463, 2006.
Okeke, I. N., Klugman, K. P., Bhutta, Z. A., Duse, A. G., Jenkins, P., O’Brien, T. F., Pablos-Mendez, A., and Laxminarayan, R. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part II: strategies for containment. Lancet Infect Dis. 5: 568–580, 2005.
Phillips, I. Beta-lactamase-producing, penicillin-resistant gonococcus. Lancet. 2: 656–657, 1976.
Elwell, L. P., De Graaff, J., Seibert, D., and Falkow, S. Plasmid-linked ampicillin resistance in haemophilus influenza type b. Infect Immun. 12: 404–410, 1975.
Tapsall, J. W. What management is there for gonorrhea in the postquinolone era? Sex Transm Dis. 33: 8–10, 2006.
Girard, M. P., Preziosi, M. P., Aguado, M. T., and Kieny, M. P. A review of vaccine research and development: Meningococcal disease. Vaccine, 2006.
Suggested Reading
Levy, S. B., The Antibiotic Paradox: How the Misuse of Antibiotics Destroys Their Curative Powers, 2nd Edition, Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publications, 2002.
Shnayerson, M, Plotkin, M. The Killers Within: The Deadly Rise of Drug-Resistant Bacteria, Little Brown and Co: Boston, 2002.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Tenover, F.C., McGowan, J.E. (2009). The Epidemiology of Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents. In: Brachman, P., Abrutyn, E. (eds) Bacterial Infections of Humans. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-09842-5
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-09843-2
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)