Abstract
The overall objective in sedation outside the operating room is to provide effective and safe sedation.
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References
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Alfentanil
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Clinical Application
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Chloral Hydrate
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Clinical Application
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Dexmedetomidine
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Buccal
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Intranasal
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Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
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Diazepam
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Etomidate
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Clinical Application
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Fentanyl
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Transdermal
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Intranasal
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Transmucosal
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Malviya S, Voepel-Lewis T, Huntington J, Siewert M, Green W. Effects of anesthetic technique on side effects associated with fentanyl Oralet premedication. J Clin Anesth. 1997;9(5):374–8.
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Friesen RH, Carpenter E, Madigan CK, Lockhart CH. Oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate for preanaesthetic medication of paediatric cardiac surgery patients. Paediatr Anaesth. 1995;5(1):29–33.
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Friesen RH, Lockhart CH. Oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate for preanesthetic medication of pediatric day surgery patients with and without droperidol as a prophylactic anti-emetic. Anesthesiology. 1992;76(1):46–51.
Lind GH, Marcus MA, Mears SL, Ashburn MA, Peterson BJ, Bernhisel KT, et al. Oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate for analgesia and sedation in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1991;20(10):1117–20.
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Ashburn MA, Streisand JB, Tarver SD, Mears SL, Mulder SM, Floet Wilms AW, et al. Oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate for premedication in paediatric outpatients. Can J Anaesth. 1990;37(8):857–66.
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Feld LH, Champeau MW, van Steennis CA, Scott JC. Preanesthetic medication in children: a comparison of oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate versus placebo. Anesthesiology. 1989;71(3):374–7.
Streisand JB, Stanley TH, Hague B, van Vreeswijk H, Ho GH, Pace NL. Oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate premedication in children. Anesth Analg. 1989;69(1):28–34.
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Pharmacokinetics
Katz R, Kelly HW. Pharmacokinetics of continuous infusions of fentanyl in critically ill children. Crit Care Med. 1993;21(7):995–1000.
Paut O, Camboulives J, Viard L, Lemoing JP, Levron JC. Pharmacokinetics of transdermal fentanyl in the peri-operative period in young children. Anaesthesia. 2000;55(12):1202–7.
Wheeler M, Birmingham PK, Lugo RA, Heffner CL, Coté CJ. The pharmacokinetics of the intravenous formulation of fentanyl citrate administered orally in children undergoing general anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 2004;99(5):1347–51.
Fospropofol
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Garnock-Jones KP, Scott LJ. Fospropofol. Drugs. 2010;70(4):469–77.
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Ketamine
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Pharmacokinetics
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Clinical Application
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Lorazepam
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Pharmacokinetics
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Meperidine
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Pharmacokinetics
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Methohexital
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Forbes RB, Murray DJ, Dillman JB, Dull DL. Pharmacokinetics of two percent rectal methohexitone in children. Can J Anaesth. 1989;36(2):160–4.
Kestin IG, McIlvaine WB, Lockhart CH, Kestin KJ, Jones MA. Rectal methohexital for induction of anesthesia in children with and without rectal aspiration after sleep: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study. Anesth Analg. 1988;67(11):1102–4.
Björkman S, Gabrielsson J, Quaynor H, Corbey M. Pharmacokinetics of i.v. and rectal methohexitone in children. Br J Anaesth. 1987;59(12):1541–7.
Quaynor H, Corbey M, Björkman S. Rectal induction of anaesthesia in children with methohexitone. Patient acceptability and clinical pharmacokinetics. Br J Anaesth. 1985;57(6):573–7.
Kraus G, Frank S, Knoll R, Prestele H. Pharmacokinetic studies following intravenous, intramuscular and rectal administration of methohexital in children. Anaesthesist. 1984;33(6):266–71.
Stimmesse B, Barale F, Lassauge F, Truong Than T, Arbez-Gindre F, Adloff M, Succi C, Guichard C, Belon JP. Pharmacokinetics of methohexital administered rectally in pediatric anesthesia. Agressologie. 1987;28(10):1015–7. (French).
Michel-Guéroult P, Benoit I, Grellet J, Meynat Y, Merlet JP, Saux MC. Pharmacokinetic and clinical evaluation of rectal hydrophilic gel of methohexital in pediatric surgery. Therapie. 1993; 48(1):27–32. (French).
Liu LMP, Gaudreault P, Firedman PA. Methohexital plasma concentrations in children following rectal administration. Anesthesiology. 1985;62:567–70.
Midazolam
http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/getFile.cfm?id=22397&type=pdf&name=d6de628c-bbe5-437e-9338-6f54cd661be1. Accessed 11 Oct 2010.
Pharmacokinetics
Johnson TN, Rostami-Hodjegan A, Tucker GT. Prediction of the clearance of eleven drugs and associated variability in neonates, infants and children. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2006;45(9):931–56.
Minagawa K, Watanabe T. A pharmacokinetic study of midazolam for the treatment of status epilepticus in children: a preliminary report. No To Hattatsu. 2006;38(4):301–3.
Björkman S. Prediction of drug disposition in infants and children by means of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling: theophylline and midazolam as model drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;59(6):691–704.
de Wildt SN, de Hoog M, Vinks AA, van der Giesen E, van den Anker JN. Population pharmacokinetics and metabolism of midazolam in pediatric intensive care patients. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(7):1952–8.
Johnson TN, Rostami-Hodjegan A, Goddard JM, Tanner MS, Tucker GT. Contribution of midazolam and its 1-hydroxy metabolite to preoperative sedation in children: a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic analysis. Br J Anaesth. 2002;89(3):428–37.
Reed MD, Rodarte A, Blumer JL, Khoo KC, Akbari B, Pou S, et al. The single-dose pharmacokinetics of midazolam and its primary metabolite in pediatric patients after oral and intravenous administration. J Clin Pharmacol. 2001;41(12):1359–69.
Nahara MC, McMorrow J, Jones PR, Anglin D, Rosenberg R. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam in critically ill pediatric patients. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 2000;25(3–4):219–21.
Blumer JL. Clinical pharmacology of midazolam in infants and children. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1998;35(1):37–47.
Scott RC, Besag FM, Boyd SG, Berry D, Neville BG. Buccal absorption of midazolam: pharmacokinetics and EEG pharmacodynamics. Epilepsia. 1998;39(3):290–4.
Jones RD, Visram AR, Kornberg JP, Irwin MG, Gunawardene WM. Premedication with oral midazolam in children – an assessment of psychomotor function, anxiolysis, sedation and pharmacokinetics. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1994;22(5):539–44.
Malinovsky JM, Lejus C, Servin F, Lepage JY, Le Normand Y, Testa S, et al. Plasma concentrations of midazolam after i.v., nasal or rectal administration in children. Br J Anaesth. 1993;70(6):617–20.
Tolia V, Brennan S, Aravind MK, Kauffman RE. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study of midazolam in children during esophagogastroduodenoscopy. J Pediatr. 1991;119(3):467–71.
Walbergh EJ, Wills RJ, Eckhert J. Plasma concentrations of midazolam in children following intranasal administration. Anesthesiology. 1991;74(2):233–5.
Rey E, Delaunay L, Pons G, Murat I, Richard MO, Saint-Maurice C, et al. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam in children: comparative study of intranasal and intravenous administration. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1991;41(4):355–7.
Kraus GB, Gruber RG, Knoll R, Danner U. Pharmacokinetic studies following intravenous and rectal administration of midazolam in children. Anaesthesist. 1989;38(12):658–63.
Payne K, Mattheyse FJ, Liebenberg D, Dawes T. The pharmacokinetics of midazolam in paediatric patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1989;37(3):267–72.
Mathews HM, Carson IW, Lyons SM, Orr IA, Collier PS, Howard PJ, et al. A pharmacokinetic study of midazolam in paediatric patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Br J Anaesth. 1988;61(3):302–7.
Salonen M, Kanto J, Iisalo E, Himberg JJ. Midazolam as an induction agent in children: a pharmacokinetic and clinical study. Anesth Analg. 1987;66(7):625–8.
Saint-Maurice C, Meistelman C, Rey E, Esteve C, de Lauture D, Olive G. The pharmacokinetics of rectal midazolam for premedication in children. Anesthesiology. 1986;65(5):536–8.
Jochemsen R, Breimer DD. Pharmacokinetics of benzodiazepines: metabolic pathways and plasma level profiles. Curr Med Res Opin. 1984;8 Suppl 4:60–79.
Morphine
http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/getFile.cfm?id=18576&type=pdf&name=ad46c618-67e3-40fe-8ac7-57d567f454b3. Accessed 10 Oct 2010.
Pharmacokinetics
Lugo RA, Kern SE. Clinical pharmacokinetics of morphine. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2002;16(4):5–18.
Mashayekhi SO, Ghandforoush-Sattari M, Routledge PA, Hain RD. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study of morphine and morphine 6-glucuronide after oral and intravenous administration of morphine in children with cancer. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2009;30(3):99–106.
Peters JW, Anderson BJ, Simons SH, Uges DR, Tibboel D. Morphine pharmacokinetics during venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in neonates. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31(2):257–63.
Bouwmeester NJ, Anderson BJ, Tibboel D, Holford NH. Developmental pharmacokinetics of morphine and its metabolites in neonates, infants and young children. Br J Anaesth. 2004;92(2):208–17.
Hunt A, Joel S, Dick G, Goldman A. Population pharmacokinetics of oral morphine and its glucuronides in children receiving morphine as immediate-release liquid or sustained-release tablets for cancer pain. J Pediatr. 1999;135(1):47–55.
Hain RD, Hardcastle A, Pinkerton CR, Aherne GW. Morphine and morphine-6-glucuronide in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid of children. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999;48(1):37–42.
Kart T, Christrup LL, Rasmussen M. Recommended use of morphine in neonates, infants and children based on a literature review: part 1 – pharmacokinetics. Paediatr Anaesth. 1997;7(1):5–11.
Lundeberg S, Beck O, Olsson GL, Boreus LO. Rectal administration of morphine in children. Pharmacokinetic evaluation after a single-dose. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1996;40(4):445–51.
Olkkola KT, Hamunen K, Maunuksela EL. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of opioid analgesics in infants and children. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1995;28(5):385–404.
Dampier CD, Setty BN, Logan J, Ioli JG, Dean R. Intravenous morphine pharmacokinetics in pediatric patients with sickle cell disease. J Pediatr. 1995;126(3):461–7.
Nichols DG, Yaster M, Lynn AM, Helfaer MA, Deshpande JK, Manson PN, Carson BS, Bezman M, Maxwell LG, Tobias JD, et al. Disposition and respiratory effects of intrathecal morphine in children. Anesthesiology. 1993; 79(4):733–8; discussion 25A.
Dagan O, Klein J, Bohn D, Barker G, Koren G. Morphine pharmacokinetics in children following cardiac surgery: effects of disease and inotropic support. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 1993;7(4):396–8.
Choonara I, Lawrence A, Michalkiewicz A, Bowhay A, Ratcliffe J. Morphine metabolism in neonates and infants. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1992;34(5):434–7.
McRorie TI, Lynn AM, Nespeca MK, Opheim KE, Slattery JT. The maturation of morphine clearance and metabolism. Am J Dis Child. 1992; 146(8):972–6. Erratum in: Am J Dis Child. 1992;146(11):1305.
Nahata MC. Plasma concentrations of morphine in children with chronic pain–comparison of controlled release and regular morphine sulphate tablets. J Clin Pharm Ther. 1991;16(3):193–5.
Choonara IA, McKay P, Hain R, Rane A. Morphine metabolism in children. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1989;28(5):599–604.
Attia J, Ecoffey C, Sandouk P, Gross JB, Samii K. Epidural morphine in children: pharmacokinetics and CO2 sensitivity. Anesthesiology. 1986;65(6):590–4.
Shelly MP, Cory EP, Park GR. Pharmacokinetics of morphine in two children before and after liver transplantation. Br J Anaesth. 1986;58(11):1218–23.
Nahata MC, Miser AW, Miser JS, Reuning RH. Variation in morphine pharmacokinetics in children with cancer. Dev Pharmacol Ther. 1985;8(3):182–8.
Vandenberghe H, Mac Leod S, Chinyanga H, Endrenyi L, Soldin S. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous morphine in balanced anesthesia: studies in children. Drug Metab Rev. 1983;14(5):887–903.
Nitrous OxidePharmacokinetics
Koren G, Sloan I. The pharmacokinetics of inhaled N2O in children. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol. 1985;49(1):95–108.
O’Callaghan AC, Koren G, Sloan IA. Effects of age and cardiac shunts on the measured uptake of nitrous oxide in children. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol. 1991;74(3):299–315.
Clinical Application
Mace SE, Brown LA, Francis L, Godwin SA, Hahn SA, Howard PK, Kennedy RM, Mooney DP, Sacchetti AD, Wears RL, Clark RM; EMSC Panel (Writing Committee) on Critical Issues in the Sedation of Pediatric Patients in the Emergency. Clinical policy: critical issues in the sedation of pediatric patients in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2008;51(4):378–99, 399.e1–57.
Babl FE, Oakley E, Seaman C, Barnett P, Sharwood LN. High-concentration nitrous oxide for procedural sedation in children: adverse events and depth of sedation. Pediatrics. 2008;121(3):e528–32.
Bar-Meir E, Zaslansky R, Regev E, Keidan I, Orenstein A, Winkler E. Nitrous oxide administered by the plastic surgeon for repair of facial lacerations in children in the emergency room. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;117(5):1571–5.
Luhmann JD, Schootman M, Luhmann SJ, Kennedy RM. A randomized comparison of nitrous oxide plus hematoma block versus ketamine plus midazolam for emergency department forearm fracture reduction in children. Pediatrics. 2006;118(4):e1078–86.
Onody P, Gil P, Hennequin M. Safety of inhalation of a 50% nitrous oxide/oxygen premix: a prospective survey of 35 828 administrations. Drug Saf. 2006;29(7):633–40.
Ekbom K, Jakobsson J, Marcus C. Nitrous oxide inhalation is a safe and effective way to facilitate procedures in paediatric outpatient departments. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90(10):1073–6.
Burnweit C, Diana-Zerpa JA, Nahmad MH, Lankau CA, Weinberger M, Malvezzi L, et al. Nitrous oxide analgesia for minor pediatric surgical procedures: an effective alternative to conscious sedation? J Pediatr Surg. 2004;39(3):495–9. Discussion 495–9.
Kanagasundaram SA, Lane LJ, Cavalletto BP, Keneally JP, Cooper MG. Efficacy and safety of nitrous oxide in alleviating pain and anxiety during painful procedures. Arch Dis Child. 2001;84(6):492–5.
Luhmann JD, Kennedy RM, Porter FL, Miller JP, Jaffe DM. A randomized clinical trial of continuous-flow nitrous oxide and midazolam for sedation of young children during laceration repair. Ann Emerg Med. 2001;37(1):20–7.
Burton JH, Auble TE, Fuchs SM. Effectiveness of 50% nitrous oxide/50% oxygen during laceration repair in children. Acad Emerg Med. 1998;5(2):112–7.
Gregory PR, Sullivan JA. Nitrous oxide compared with intravenous regional anesthesia in pediatric forearm fracture manipulation. J Pediatr Orthop. 1996;16(2):187–91.
Evans JK, Buckley SL, Alexander AH, Gilpin AT. Analgesia for the reduction of fractures in children: a comparison of nitrous oxide with intramuscular sedation. J Pediatr Orthop. 1995;15(1):73–7.
Hennrikus WL, Shin AY, Klingelberger CE. Self-administered nitrous oxide and a hematoma block for analgesia in the outpatient reduction of fractures in children. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(3):335–9.
Hennrikus WL, Simpson RB, Klingelberger CE, Reis MT. Self-administered nitrous oxide analgesia for pediatric fracture reductions. J Pediatr Orthop. 1994;14(4):538–42.
Henderson JM, Spence DG, Komocar LM, Bonn GE, Stenstrom RJ. Administration of nitrous oxide to pediatric patients provides analgesia for venous cannulation. Anesthesiology. 1990;72(2):269–71.
Wattenmaker I, Kasser JR, McGravey A. Self-administered nitrous oxide for fracture reduction in children in an emergency room setting. J Orthop Trauma. 1990;4(1):35–8.
Gamis AS, Knapp JF, Glenski JA. Nitrous oxide analgesia in a pediatric emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1989;18(2):177–81.
Benedetti C, Chapman CR, Colpitts YH, Chen AC. Effect of nitrous oxide concentration on event-related potentials during painful tooth stimulation. Anesthesiology. 1982;56(5):360–4.
Ruben H. Nitrous oxide analgesia in dentistry. Its use during 15 years in Denmark. Br Dent J. 1972;132(5):195–6.
Parbrook GD. The levels of nitrous oxide analgesia. Br J Anaesth. 1967;39(12):974–82.
Zier JL, Tarrago R, Liu M. Level of sedation with nitrous oxide for pediatric medical procedures. Anesth Analg. 2010;110(5):1399–405.
Pentobarbital
Mason KP, Zurakowski D, Connor L, et al. Infant sedation for MR imaging and CT: oral versus intravenous pentobarbital. Radiology. 2004;233:723–28.
http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/getFile.cfm?id=19410&type=pdf&name=f302ddf5-0213-43b3-b6c1-b3edf2bafbcd. Accessed 11 Oct 2010.
Pharmacokinetics
Schaible DH, Cupit GC, Swedlow DB, Rocci Jr ML. High-dose pentobarbital pharmacokinetics in hypothermic brain-injured children. J Pediatr. 1982;100(4):655–60.
Wermeling DP, Blouin RA, Porter WH, Rapp RP, Tibbs PA. Pentobarbital pharmacokinetics in patients with severe head injury. Drug Intell Clin Pharm. 1987;21(5):459–63.
Propofol
http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?id=14327. Accessed 11 Oct 2010.
Pharmacokinetics
Engelhardt T, McCheyne AJ, Morton N, Karsli C, Luginbuehl I, Adeli K, et al. Clinical adaptation of a pharmacokinetic model of propofol plasma concentrations in children. Paediatr Anaesth. 2008;18(3):235–9.
Allegaert K, Peeters MY, Verbesselt R, Tibboel D, Naulaers G, de Hoon JN, et al. Inter-individual variability in propofol pharmacokinetics in preterm and term neonates. Br J Anaesth. 2007;99(6):864–70.
Mazoit JX. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modeling of anesthetics in children: therapeutic implications. Paediatr Drugs. 2006;8(3):139–50.
Shangguan WN, Lian Q, Aarons L, Matthews I, Wang Z, Chen X, et al. Pharmacokinetics of a single bolus of propofol in Chinese children of different ages. Anesthesiology. 2006;104(1):27–32.
Zuppa AF, Helfaer MA, Adamson PC. Propofol pharmacokinetics. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2003;4(1):124–5.
Rigby-Jones AE, Nolan JA, Priston MJ, Wright PM, Sneyd JR, Wolf AR. Pharmacokinetics of propofol infusions in critically ill neonates, infants, and children in an intensive care unit. Anesthesiology. 2002;97(6):1393–400.
Knibbe CA, Melenhorst-deJong G, Mestrom M, Rademaker CM, Reijnvaan AF, Zuideveld KP, et al. Pharmacokinetics and effects of propofol 6% for short-term sedation in paediatric patients following cardiac surgery. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2002;54(4):415–22.
Sakai T, Mi WD, Ebina T, Kudo T, Kudo M, Matsuki A. Pharmacokinetics of propofol and ketamine during and after total intravenous anesthesia with propofol, fentanyl and ketamine for pediatric patients. Masui. 1998;47(3):277–80.
Reed MD, Yamashita TS, Marx CM, Myers CM, Blumer JL. A pharmacokinetically based propofol dosing strategy for sedation of the critically ill, mechanically ventilated pediatric patient. Crit Care Med. 1996;24(9):1473–81.
Murat I, Billard V, Vernois J, Zaouter M, Marsol P, Souron R, et al. Pharmacokinetics of propofol after a single dose in children aged 1–3 years with minor burns. Comparison of three data analysis approaches. Anesthesiology. 1996;84(3):526–32.
Raoof AA, van Obbergh LJ, Verbeeck RK. Propofol pharmacokinetics in children with biliary atresia. Br J Anaesth. 1995;74(1):46–9.
Short TG, Aun CS, Tan P, Wong J, Tam YH, Oh TE. A prospective evaluation of pharmacokinetic model controlled infusion of propofol in paediatric patients. Br J Anaesth. 1994;72(3):302–6.
Fisher DM. Propofol in pediatrics. Lessons in pharmacokinetic modeling. Anesthesiology. 1994;80(1):2–5.
Kataria BK, Ved SA, Nicodemus HF, Hoy GR, Lea D, Dubois MY, et al. The pharmacokinetics of propofol in children using three different data analysis approaches. Anesthesiology. 1994;80(1):104–22.
Shafer SL. Advances in propofol pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. J Clin Anesth. 1993;5(6 Suppl 1): 14S–21S.
Jones RD, Chan K, Andrew LJ, Lawson AD, Wong P. Comparative pharmacokinetics of propofol in Chinese adults and children. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 1992;14(1):41–7.
Jones RD, Chan K, Andrew LJ. Pharmacokinetics of propofol in children. Br J Anaesth. 1990;65(5):661–7.
Saint-Maurice C, Cockshott ID, Douglas EJ, Richard MO, Harmey JL. Pharmacokinetics of propofol in young children after a single dose. Br J Anaesth. 1989;63(6):667–70.
Vandermeersch E, Van Hemelrijck J, Byttebier G, Van Aken H. Pharmacokinetics of propofol during continuous infusion for pediatric anesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg. 1989;40(3):161–5.
Clinical Application
Gemma M, de Vitis A, Baldoli C, Calvi MR, Blasi V, Scola E, et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in children sedated with propofol or midazolam. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2009;21(3):253–8.
Lightdale JR, Valim C, Newburg AR, Mahoney LB, Zgleszewski S, Fox VL. Efficiency of propofol versus midazolam and fentanyl sedation at a pediatric teaching hospital: a prospective study. Gastrointest Endosc. 2008;67(7):1067–75.
Mallory MD, Baxter AL, Kost SI, Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium. Propofol vs pentobarbital for sedation of children undergoing magnetic resonance imaging: results from the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium. Paediatr Anaesth. 2009;19(6):601–11.
Pershad J, Wan J, Anghelescu DL. Comparison of propofol with pentobarbital/midazolam/fentanyl sedation for magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in children. Pediatrics. 2007;120(3):e629–36.
Rai K, Hegde AM, Goel K. Sedation in uncooperative children undergoing dental procedures: a comparative evaluation of midazolam, propofol and ketamine. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2007 Fall;32(1):1–4.
Gottschling S, Meyer S, Krenn T, Reinhard H, Lothschuetz D, Nunold H, et al. Propofol versus midazolam/ketamine for procedural sedation in pediatric oncology. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2005;27(9):471–6.
Koroglu A, Teksan H, Sagir O, Yucel A, Toprak HI, Ersoy OM. A comparison of the sedative, hemodynamic, and respiratory effects of dexmedetomidine and propofol in children undergoing magnetic resonance imaging. Anesth Analg. 2006;103(1):63–7.
Mahmoud M, Gunter J, Donnelly LF, Wang Y, Nick TG, Sadhasivam S. A comparison of dexmedetomidine with propofol for magnetic resonance imaging sleep studies in children. Anesth Analg. 2009;109(3):745–53.
Cravero JP, Beach ML, Blike GT, Gallagher SM, Hertzog JH, Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium. The incidence and nature of adverse events during pediatric sedation/anesthesia with propofol for procedures outside the operating room: a report from the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium. Anesth Analg. 2009;108(3):795–804.
Remifentanil
http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/getFile.cfm?id=10899&type=pdf&name=dbc63b6e-f8c5-4fd0-8ec3-4f5e19125313. Accessed 11 Oct 2010.
Pharmacokinetics
Ross AK, Davis PJ, Dear Gd GL, Ginsberg B, McGowan FX, Stiller RD, et al. Pharmacokinetics of remifentanil in anesthetized pediatric patients undergoing elective surgery or diagnostic procedures. Anesth Analg. 2001;93(6):1393–401.
Davis PJ, Wilson AS, Siewers RD, Pigula FA, Landsman IS. The effects of cardiopulmonary bypass on remifentanil kinetics in children undergoing atrial septal defect repair. Anesth Analg. 1999;89(4):904–8.
Clinical Application
Battershill AJ, Keating GM. Remifentanil: a review of its analgesic and sedative use in the intensive care unit. Drugs. 2006;66(3):365–85.
Sammartino M, Garra R, Sbaraglia F, De Riso M, Continolo N. Remifentanil in children. Paediatr Anaesth. 2010;20(3):246–55.
Marsh DF, Hodkinson B. Remifentanil in paediatric anaesthetic practice. Anaesthesia. 2009;64(3):301–8.
S-Ketamine
Kharasch ED, Labroo R. Metabolism of ketamine stereoisomers by human liver microsomes. Anesthesiology. 1992;77(6):1201–7.
Intranasal
Weber F, Wulf H, el Saeidi G. Premedication with nasal s-ketamine and midazolam provides good conditions for induction of anesthesia in preschool children. Can J Anaesth. 2003;50(5):470–5.
Caudal Block
Almenrader N, Passariello M, D’Amico G, Haiberger R, Pietropaoli P. Caudal additives for postoperative pain management in children: S(+)-ketamine and neostigmine. Paediatr Anaesth. 2005;15(2):143–7.
Passariello M, Almenrader N, Canneti A, Rubeo L, Haiberger R, Pietropaoli P. Caudal analgesia in children: S(+)-ketamine vs S(+)-ketamine plus clonidine. Paediatr Anaesth. 2004;14(10):851–5.
Martindale SJ, Dix P, Stoddart PA. Double-blind randomized controlled trial of caudal versus intravenous S(+)-ketamine for supplementation of caudal analgesia in children. Br J Anaesth. 2004;92(3):344–7.
Weber F, Wulf H. Caudal bupivacaine and s(+)-ketamine for postoperative analgesia in children. Paediatr Anaesth. 2003;13(3):244–8.
Hager H, Marhofer P, Sitzwohl C, Adler L, Kettner S, Semsroth M. Caudal clonidine prolongs analgesia from caudal S(+)-ketamine in children. Anesth Analg. 2002;94(5):1169–72.
De Negri P, Ivani G, Visconti C, De Vivo P. How to prolong postoperative analgesia after caudal anaesthesia with ropivacaine in children: S-ketamine versus clonidine. Paediatr Anaesth. 2001;11(6):679–83.
Marhofer P, Krenn CG, Plöchl W, Wallner T, Glaser C, Koinig H, et al. S(+)-ketamine for caudal block in paediatric anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth. 2000;84(3):341–5.
Rectal
Heinrich M, Wetzstein V, Muensterer OJ, Till H. Conscious sedation: off-label use of rectal S(+)-ketamine and midazolam for wound dressing changes in paediatric heat injuries. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2004;14(4):235–9.
Marhofer P, Freitag H, Höchtl A, Greher M, Erlacher W, Semsroth M. S(+)-ketamine for rectal premedication in children. Anesth Analg. 2001;92(1):62–5.
Tanaka M, Nishikawa T. Rectal S(+)-ketamine for pediatric premedication. Anesth Analg. 2001;93(5):1363–4.
Pharmacodynamics and Pharmacokinetics
Herd DW, Anderson BJ, Keene NA, Holford NH. Investigating the pharmacodynamics of ketamine in children. Paediatr Anaesth. 2008;18(1):36–42.
Weber F, Wulf H, Gruber M, Biallas R. S-ketamine and s-norketamine plasma concentrations after nasal and i.v. administration in anesthetized children. Paediatr Anaesth. 2004;14(12):983–8.
Koinig H, Marhofer P, Krenn CG, Klimscha W, Wildling E, Erlacher W, et al. Analgesic effects of caudal and intramuscular S(+)-ketamine in children. Anesthesiology. 2000;93(4):976–80.
Sufentanil
http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/getFile.cfm?id=7929&type=pdf&name=39dc3695-dbf2-4783-b1bf-97237593f1c0. Accessed 11 Oct 2010.
Pharmacokinetics
Guay J, Gaudreault P, Tang A, Goulet B, Varin F. Pharmacokinetics of sufentanil in normal children. Can J Anaesth. 1992;39(1):14–20.
Davis PJ, Stiller RL, Cook DR, Brandom BW, Davin-Robinson KA. Pharmacokinetics of sufentanil in adolescent patients with chronic renal failure. Anesth Analg. 1988;67(3):268–71.
Greeley WJ, de Bruijn NP, Davis DP. Sufentanil pharmacokinetics in pediatric cardiovascular patients. Anesth Analg. 1987;66(11):1067–72.
Davis PJ, Cook DR, Stiller RL, Davin-Robinson KA. Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of high-dose sufentanil in infants and children undergoing cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg. 1987;66(3):203–8.
Flumazenil
http://www.bedfordlabs.com/BedfordLabsWeb/products/inserts/Div-FMZ-P02.pdf. Accessed 26 Jan 2010.
Weinbroum AA, Flaishon R, Sorkine P, Szold O, Rudick V. A risk-benefit assessment of flumazenil in the management of benzodiazepine overdose. Drug Saf. 1997;17(3):181–96.
Intranasal
Heard C, Creighton P, Lerman J. Intranasal flumazenil and naloxone to reverse over-sedation in a child undergoing dental restorations. Paediatr Anaesth. 2009;19(8):795–7. Discussion 798–9.
McGlone R, Fleet T, Durham S, Hollis S. A comparison of intramuscular ketamine with high dose intramuscular midazolam with and without intranasal flumazenil in children before suturing. Emerg Med J. 2001;18(1):34–8.
Rectal
Haret D. Rectal Flumazenil can save the day. Paediatr Anaesth. 2008;18(4):352.
Carbajal R, Simon N, Blanc P, Paupe A, Lenclen R, Oliver-Martin M. Rectal flumazenil to reverse midazolam sedation in children. Anesth Analg. 1996;82(4):895.
Lopez-Herce J, Lopez de Sa E, Garcia de Frias E. Reversal of midazolam sedation with rectal flumazenil in children. Crit Care Med. 1994;22(7):1204.
Pharmacokinetics
Jones RD, Chan K, Roulson CJ, Brown AG, Smith ID, Mya GH. Pharmacokinetics of flumazenil and midazolam. Br J Anaesth. 1993;70(3):286–92.
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Naloxone
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Acknowledgments
The author wishes to acknowledge the invaluable contribution of Dr. Bo Kennedy to this chapter.
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Prescilla, R.P. (2012). Pharmacology and Clinical Application of Sedatives, Analgesics, and Adjuncts. In: Mason, K. (eds) Pediatric Sedation Outside of the Operating Room. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09714-5_8
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