Abstract
Benzodiazepines have been in clinical use since the 1960s. Benzodiazepines act through allosteric modulation of the GABAA receptor to enhance the activity of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, resulting in a slowing of neurotransmission and sedative and anxiolytic effects. Initially benzodiazepines were thought to have low dependence liability, though over time there has been increasing evidence of benzodiazepine dependence. Benzodiazepines are commonly used to treat anxiety and insomnia, though increasingly they are considered second line treatments for most indications. Concerns about the effects of benzodiazepines on cognition, falls and their implication in opioid related mortality have emerged. Few pharmacological treatments for benzodiazepine dependence have been shown to be effective with gradual taper the most common treatment strategy for benzodiazepine dependence.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Apelt S, Schmauss C, Emrich HM (1990) Preference for alprazolam as opposed to diazepam in benzodiazepine-dependent psychiatric inpatients. Pharmacopsychiatry 23(2):70–5 (PubMed PMID: 1971118. Epub 1990/03/01. eng)
Bai X, France CP, Gerak LR (2011) The discriminative stimulus effects of midazolam are resistant to modulation by morphine, amphetamine, dizocilpine, and gamma-butyrolactone in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacol (Berl) 217(4):495–504 (PubMed PMID: 21503606. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC3195358. Epub 2011/04/20. eng)
Barker MJ, Greenwood KM, Jackson M, Crowe SF (2004) Cognitive effects of long-term benzodiazepine use: a meta-analysis. CNS Drugs 18(1):37–48
Barnas C, Rossmann M, Roessler H, Riemer Y, Fleischhacker WW (1992) Benzodiazepines and other psychotropic drugs abused by patients in a methadone maintenance program: familiarity and preference. J Clin Psychopharmacol 12(6):397–402
Billioti de Gage S, Pariente A, Begaud B (2015) Is there really a link between benzodiazepine use and the risk of dementia? Expert Opinion Drug Safety 14(5):733–747 (PubMed PMID: 25691075. Epub 2015/02/19. eng)
Bond A (1993) The risks of taking benzodiazepines. In: Hallstrom C (ed) Benzodiazepines dependence, 1st edn. Oxford University Press, London, pp 34–45
Bonn D, Bonn J (1998) Anxious times for the treatment of anxiety. Lancet 352(3):1126
Boyle D, Tobin J (1961) Pharmaceutical management of behaviour disorders: chlordiazepoxide in covert and overt expressions of aggression. J Med Soc NJ 58:427–429
Brower KJ, McCammon RJ, Wojnar M, Ilgen MA, Wojnar J, Valenstein M (2011) Prescription sleeping pills, insomnia, and suicidality in the national comorbidity survey replication. J Clin Psychiatry 72(4):515–521
Busto U, Sellers EM, Naranjo CA, Cappell HD, Sanchez-Craig M, Simpkins J (1986) Patterns of benzodiazepine abuse and dependence. Br J Addict 81(1):87–94 (PubMed PMID: 2870731. Epub 1986/02/01. eng)
Campo-Soria C, Chang Y, Weiss DS (2006) Mechanism of action of benzodiazepines on GABAA receptors. Br J Pharmacol 148(7):984–90 (PubMed PMID: 16783415. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC1751932. Epub 2006/06/20. eng)
Canham SL, Gallo J, Simoni-Wastila L (2014) Perceptions of benzodiazepine dependence among women age 65 and older. J Gerontol Soc Work 57(8):872–888
Caplehorn JR, Drummer OH (2002) Fatal methadone toxicity: signs and circumstances, and the role of benzodiazepines. Aust NZ J Publ Health 26(4):358–62
Carter LP, Richards BD, Mintzer MZ, Griffiths RR (2006) Relative abuse liability of GHB in humans: a comparison of psychomotor, subjective, and cognitive effects of supratherapeutic doses of triazolam, pentobarbital, and GHB. Neuropsychopharmacol 31(11):2537–2551 (PubMed PMID: 16880774. Epub 2006/08/02. eng)
Carter LP, Griffiths RR, Suess PE, Casada JH, Wallace CL, Roache JD (2007) Relative abuse liability of indiplon and triazolam in humans: a comparison of psychomotor, subjective, and cognitive effects. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 322(2):749–59 (PubMed PMID: 17502431. Epub 2007/05/16. eng)
Chandler A, Whittaker A, Williams N, McGorm K, Cunningham-Burley S, Mathews G (2014) Mother’s little helper? Contrasting accounts of benzodiazepine and methadone use among drug-dependent parents in the UK. Drugs (Abingdon, England) 21(6):470–5 (PubMed PMID: 25552821. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC4266080. Epub 2015/01/02. eng)
Charney DS, Mihic SJ, Harris RA (2006) Hypnotics and sedatives. In: Laurence L, Brunton P (eds) Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. Printed in the United States of America: Mcgraw-hill, Medical Publishing Division
Chen KW, Berger CC, Forde DP, D’Adamo C, Weintraub E, Gandhi D (2011) Benzodiazepine use and misuse among patients in a methadone program. BMC psychiatry 11:90 (PubMed PMID: 21595945. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC3117775. Epub 2011/05/21. eng)
Ciraulo DA, Sands BF, Shader RI (1988) Critical review of liability for benzodiazepine abuse among alcoholics. Am J Psychiatry 145(12):1501–1506 (PubMed PMID: 2904227. Epub 1988/12/01. eng)
Curran HV (1986) Tranquillising memories: A review of the effects of benzodiazepines on human memory. Biol Psychol 23(2):179–213
Daderman AM, Lidberg L (1999) Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) abuse in combination with alcohol causes premeditated, grievous violence in male juvenile offenders. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 27(1):83–99
Darke S, Hall W, Ross M, Wodak A (1992) Benzodiazepine use and HIV risk-taking behaviour among injecting drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend 1992(31):31–36
Darke SG, Ross JE, Hall WD (1995) Benzodiazepine use among injecting heroin users. Med J Aust 162(12):645–647
de las Cuevas C, Sanz E, de la Fuente J (2003) Benzodiazepines: more “behavioural” addiction than dependence. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 167(3):297–303 (PubMed PMID: 12669174. Epub 2003/04/02. eng)
de Vries OJ, Peeters G, Elders P, Sonnenberg C, Muller M, Deeg DJ, et al (2013) The elimination half-life of benzodiazepines and fall risk: two prospective observational studies. Age Ageing 42(6):764–70 (PubMed PMID: 23900130. Epub 2013/08/01. eng)
Dellemijn PLI, Fields HL (1994) Do benzodiazepines have a role in chronic pain management? Pain 57(2):137–52
Denis C, Auriacombe M, Fatsas M, Lavie E (2006) Pharmacological interventions for benzodiazepine mono-dependence management in outpatient settings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3(2006):CD005194
Dietze P, Jolley D, Fry C, Bammer G (2005) Transient changes in behaviour lead to heroin overdose: results from a case-crossover study of non-fatal overdose. Addiction 100(5):636–642
DiMascio A (1970) The effects of benzodiazepines on aggression: Reduced or increased? Psychopharmacology 30:95–102
Dobbin M (2001) Discussion paper: temazepam injecting in Victoria 2001. Drugs Policy and Services, Victorian Department of Human Services, Melbourne
Ekstrom MP, Bornefalk-Hermansson A, Abernethy AP, Currow DC (2014) Safety of benzodiazepines and opioids in very severe respiratory disease: national prospective study. BMJ 348:g445 (PubMed PMID: 24482539. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC3906915. Epub 2014/02/01. eng)
Ernst E, Bartu A, Popescu A, Ileutt KF, Hansson R, Plumley N (2002) Methadone-related deaths in Western Australia 1993–99. Aust NZ J Publ Health 26(4):364–370
Evans SM, Griffiths RR, de Wit H (1996) Preference for diazepam, but not buspirone, in moderate drinkers. Psychopharmacol (Berl) 123(2):154–163 (PubMed PMID: 8741938. Epub 1996/01/01. eng)
Feldman PE (1962) An analysis of the efficacy of diazepam. J Neuropsychiatry 3:62–67
Fischer BD, Rowlett JK (2011) Anticonflict and reinforcing effects of triazolam + pregnanolone combinations in rhesus monkeys. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 337(3):805–11 (PubMed PMID: 21411495. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC3101007. Epub 2011/03/18. eng)
Fountain J, Griffiths P, Farrell M, Gossop M, Strang J (1999) Benzodiazepines in polydrug-using repertoires: the impact of the decreased availability of temazepam gel-filled capsules. Drugs Edu Prev Policy 6(1)
French AP (1989) Dangerously aggressive behavior as a side effect of alprazolam. Am J Psychiatry 146(2):276
Gelkopf M, Bleich A, Hayward R, Bodner G, Adelson M (1999) Characteristics of benzodiazepine abuse in methadone maintenance treatment patients: a 1 year prospective study in an Israeli clinic. Drug Alcohol Depend 55(1–2):63–68
Gerak LR, Woolverton WL, Nader MA, Patrick GA, Harris LS, Winger G, et al (2001) Behavioral effects of flunitrazepam: reinforcing and discriminative stimulus effects in rhesus monkeys and prevention of withdrawal signs in pentobarbital-dependent rats. Drug Alcohol Depend 63(1):39–49 (PubMed PMID: 11297830. Epub 2001/04/12. eng)
Gerostamoulos J, Staikos V, Drummer OH (2001) Heroin-related deaths in Victoria: a review of cases for 1997 and 1998. Drug Alcohol Depend 61(2):123–127
Gomes T, Juurlink D, Yao Z, Camacho X, Paterson JM, Singh S, et al (2014) Impact of legislation and a prescription monitoring program on the prevalence of potentially inappropriate prescriptions for monitored drugs in Ontario: a time series analysis. CMAJ open 2(4):E256–61 (PubMed PMID: 25485251. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC4251507. Epub 2014/12/09. eng)
Gomez TH, Roache JD, Meisch RA (2002) Relative reinforcing effects of different benzodiazepine doses for rhesus monkeys. Drug Alcohol Depend 68(3):275–83 (PubMed PMID: 12393222. Epub 2002/10/24. eng)
Gudin JA, Mogali S, Jones JD, Comer SD (2013) Risks, management, and monitoring of combination opioid, benzodiazepines, and/or alcohol use. Postgrad Med 125(4):115–130 (PubMed PMID: 23933900. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC4057040. Epub 2013/08/13. eng)
Guerlais M, Grall-Bronnec M, Feuillet F, Gérardin M, Jolliet P, Victorri-Vigneau C (2015) Dependence on prescription benzodiazepines and z-drugs among young to middle-aged patients in France. Subst Use Misuse 50(3):320–327
Gutierrez-Cebollada J, de la Torre R, Ortuno J, Garces JM, Cami J (1994) Psychotropic drug consumption and other factors associated with heroin overdose. Drug Alcohol Depend 35(2):169–174
Hartog J, Tusel DJ (1987) Valium use and abuse by methadone maintenance clients. Int J Addict 22(11):1147–1154
Helmus TC, Tancer M, Johanson CE (2005) Reinforcing effects of diazepam under anxiogenic conditions in individuals with social anxiety. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 13(4):348–56 (PubMed PMID: 16366765. Epub 2005/12/22. eng)
Herings RM, Stricker BH, de Boer A, Bakker A, Sturmans F (1995) Benzodiazepines and the risk of falling leading to femur fractures. Dosage more important than elimination half-life. Arch Intern Med 155(16):1801–1807 (PubMed PMID: 7654115. Epub 1995/09/11. eng)
Hoebert JM, Souverein PC, Mantel-Teeuwisse AK, Leufkens HG, van Dijk L (2012) Reimbursement restriction and moderate decrease in benzodiazepine use in general practice. Annals Fam Med 10(1):42–49 (PubMed PMID: 22230829. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC3262472. Epub 2012/01/11. eng)
Iguchi MY, Handelsman L, Bickel WK, Griffiths RR (1993) Benzodiazepine and sedative use/abuse by methadone maintenance clients. Drug Alcohol Depend 32(3):257–266
Islam MM, Conigrave KM, Day CA, Nguyen Y, Haber PS (2014) Twenty-year trends in benzodiazepine dispensing in the Australian population. Intern Med J 44(1):57–64
Jann M, Kennedy WK, Lopez G (2014) Benzodiazepines: a major component in unintentional prescription drug overdoses with opioid analgesics. J Pharm Pract 27(1):5–16 (PubMed PMID: 24436437. Epub 2014/01/18. eng)
Johnson CBB, Brough R, Buchanan J (2007) Benzodiazepine prescribing: lessons from interprofessional dialogue. Aust Fam Physician 36(4):245–306)
Joint Formulary Committee (2013) British national formulary (BNF) 66. BMJ Publishing Group Ltd and Royal Pharmaceutical Society, London
Jones K, Nielsen S, Bruno R, Frei M, Lubman D (2011) Benzodiazepine prescribing and violence: implications for general practitioners. Aust Fam Phys 40(11):862–865
Kapil V, Green JL, Le Lait C, Wood DM, Dargan PI (2014) Misuse of benzodiazepines and Z-drugs in the UK. Br J Psychiatry 205(5):407–408 (PubMed PMID: 25061118. Epub 2014/07/26. eng)
Kellici S, Hoti E, Burazeri G (2013) Level and factors of benzodiazepines misuse in Albania. Int J Clin Pharm 35(3):323–326 (PubMed PMID: 23423641. Epub 2013/02/21. eng)
Kelly TH, Delzer TA, Martin CA, Harrington NG, Hays LR, Bardo MT (2009) Performance and subjective effects of diazepam and d-amphetamine in high and low sensation seekers. Behav Pharmacol 20(5–6):505–517 (PubMed PMID: 19654505. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC3148198. Epub 2009/08/06. eng)
Lane SD, Cherek DR, Nouvion SO (2007) Modulation of human risky decision making by flunitrazepam. Psychopharmacology 196(2):177–188 (PubMed PMID: 17917718. Epub 2007/10/06. eng)
Licata SC, Rowlett JK (2008) Abuse and dependence liability of benzodiazepine-type drugs: GABA(A) receptor modulation and beyond. Pharmacol biochem behav 90(1):74–89 (PubMed PMID: 18295321. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC2453238. Epub 2008/02/26. eng)
Lile JA, Kelly TH, Hays LR (2010) The reinforcing, self-reported, performance and physiological effects of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, triazolam, hydromorphone and methylphenidate in cannabis users. Behav Pharmacol 21(1):29–38 (PubMed PMID: PMC2903043)
Lintzeris N, Nielsen S (2010) Benzodiazepines, methadone and buprenorphine: interactions and clinical management. Am J Addict 19(1):59–72
Mak KH, Wang YT, Cheong TH, Poh SC (1993) The effect of oral midazolam and diazepam on respiration in normal subjects. Eur Respir J 6(1):42–47
Mancuso CE, Tanzi MG, Gabay M (2004) Paradoxical reactions to benzodiazepines: literature review and treatment options. Pharmacotherapy 24(9):1177–1185 (PubMed PMID: 15460178. Epub 2004/10/06. eng)
McCabe SE, West BT (2014) Medical and nonmedical use of prescription benzodiazepine anxiolytics among U.S. high school seniors. Addict Behav 39(5):959–664 (PubMed PMID: 24556157. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC4312492. Epub 2014/02/22. eng)
Medicare Australia (2011) https://www.medicareaustralia.gov.au/statistics/pbs_item.shtml [database on the Internet]. Australian Government 2011 [cited 5th July 2011]
Miczek KA, Weerts EM, Debold JF (1993) Alcohol, benzodiazepine (GABA sub A) receptor complex and aggression: Ethological analysis of individual differences in rodents and primates. J Stud Alcohol 11:170–179
Morgan WW (1990) Abuse liability of barbiturates and other sedative-hypnotics. Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse 9(1–2):67–82 (ubMed PMID: 2198786. Epub 1990/01/01. eng)
Naja WJ, Pelissolo A, Haddad RS, Baddoura R, Baddoura C (2000) A general population survey on patterns of benzodiazepine use and dependence in Lebanon. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 102(6):429–431 (PubMed PMID: 11142431. Epub 2001/01/06. eng)
Nattala P, Murthy P, Thennarasu K, Cottler LB (2014) Nonmedical use of sedatives in urban Bengaluru. Indian J Psychiatry 56(3):246–252 (PubMed PMID: 25316935. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC4181179. Epub 2014/10/16. eng)
Neale J (2000) Methadone, methadone treatment and non-fatal overdose. Drug Alcohol Depend 58(1–2):117–124
Nielsen SBR (2014) Implementing real time prescription drug monitoring: are we ready? (Editorial). Drug Alcohol Rev. Accepted 14 July 2014 (In Press)
Nielsen S, Dietze P, Lee N, Dunlop A, Taylor D (2007) Concurrent buprenorphine and benzodiazepines use and self-reported opioid toxicity in opioid substitution treatment. Addiction (Abingdon, England) 102(4):616–622
Nielsen S, Lintzeris N, Bruno R, Campbell G, Larance B, Hall W et al (2015) Benzodiazepine use amongst chronic pain patients prescribed opioids: associations with pain, physical and mental health and health service utilization. Pain Med 16(2):356–366
Ohayon MM, Caulet M, Priest RG, Guilleminault C (1998) Psychotropic medication consumption patterns in the UK general population. J Clin Epidemiol 51(3):273–83
Oswald LM, Roache JD, Rhoades HM (1999) Predictors of individual differences in alprazolam self-medication. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 7(4):379–90 (PubMed PMID: 10609973. Epub 1999/12/28. eng)
Oude Voshaar RC, Couvee JE, Van Balkom AJLM, Mulder PGH, Zitman FG (2006) Strategies for discontinuing long-term benzodiazepine use: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 189(3):213–220
Parr JM, Kavanagh DJ, Cahill L, Mitchell G, Mc DYR (2009) Effectiveness of current treatment approaches for benzodiazepine discontinuation: a meta-analysis. Addiction 104(1):13–24 (PubMed PMID: 18983627. Epub 2008/11/06. eng)
Pauly V, Pradel V, Pourcel L, Nordmann S, Frauger E, Lapeyre-Mestre M, et al (2012) Estimated magnitude of diversion and abuse of opioids relative to benzodiazepines in France. Drug Alcohol Depend 126(1–2):13–20
Perera KM, Tulley M, Jenner FA (1987) The use of benzodiazepines among drug addicts. Br J Addict 82(5):511–5 (PubMed PMID: 2885020. Epub 1987/05/01. eng)
Practitioners RRACoG (2000) RACGP guidelines for rational use of benzodiazepines Melbourne. RACGP [updated October; cited 2011 27th June]
Preston KL, Griffiths RR, Stitzer ML, Bigelow GE, Liebson IA (1984) Diazepam and methadone interactions in methadone maintenance. Clin Pharmacol Ther 36(4):534–541 (PubMed PMID: 6478738. Epub 1984/10/01. eng)
Puangkot S, Laohasiriwong W, Saengsuwan J, Chiawiriyabunya I (2011) Prevalence of benzodiazepines misuse in Ubon Ratchathani province Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai = Chotmaihet thangphaet 94(1):118–22 (PubMed PMID: 21425737. Epub 2011/03/24. eng)
Rall T (1992) Hypnotics and sedatives: ethanol. In: Goodman Gilman ATW, Nies A, Taylor P (eds), Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw-Hill Inc, New York, p 345–382
Redican KJ, Marek LI, Brock DJ, McCance-Katz EF (2012) Exploring the etiologic factors and dynamics of prescription drug abuse in southwest virginia. Health Promot Perspect 2(2):153–165 (PubMed PMID: 24688929. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC3963639. Epub 2012/01/01. eng)
Richardson K, Bennett K, Kenny RA (2015) Polypharmacy including falls risk-increasing medications and subsequent falls in community-dwelling middle-aged and older adults. Age Ageing 44(1):90–6 (PubMed PMID: 25313240. Epub 2014/10/15. eng)
Rigg KK, Ford JA (2014) The misuse of benzodiazepines among adolescents: psychosocial risk factors in a national sample. Drug Alcohol Depend 137:137–42 (PubMed PMID: 24582910. Epub 2014/03/04. eng)
Robin C, Trieger N (2002) Paradoxical reactions to benzodiazepines in intravenous sedation: a report of 2 cases and review of the literature. Anesthesia Prog 49(4):128–32 (PubMed PMID: 12779114. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC2007411. Epub 2003/06/05. eng)
Ross J, Darke S (2000) The nature of benzodiazepine dependence among heroin users in Sydney, Australia. Addiction 95(12):1785–1793
Ross J, Teesson M, Darke S, Lynskey M, Ali R, Ritter A, et al (2005) The characteristics of heroin users entering treatment: findings from the Australian treatment outcome study (ATOS). Drug and Alcohol Rev 24(5):411–418
Rudorfer MV, Osman OT, Potter WZ (1989) Alprazolam and aggression. Am J Psychiatry 146(7):949–950
Schweizer E, Rickels K, Case WG, Greenblatt DJ (1991) Carbamazepine treatment in patients discontinuing long-term benzodiazepine therapy: effects on withdrawal severity and outcome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48(5):448–452
Short- and Long-Term Use of Benzodiazepines in Patients with Generalized Anxiety Disorder (2014) A review of guidelines. Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health, Ottawa ON
Simon GE, Ludman EJ (2006) Outcome of new benzodiazepine prescriptions to older adults in primary care. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 28(5):374–378 (PubMed PMID: 16950371. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC2262838. Epub 2006/09/05. eng)
Soumerai S, Simoni-Wastila L, Singer C, Mah C, Gao X, Salzman C, et al (2003) Lack of relationship between long-term use of benzodiazepines and escalation to high dosages. Psychiatr Serv, 1006–1011
Stitzer ML, Griffiths RR, McLellan AT, Grabowski J, Hawthorne JW (1981) Diazepam use among methadone maintenance patients: patterns and dosages. Drug Alcohol Depend 8(3):189–199
Stone AM, Merlo LJ (2011) Attitudes of college students toward mental illness stigma and the misuse of psychiatric medications. J Clin Psychiatry 72(2):134–139 (PubMed PMID: 21208582. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC3056282. Epub 2011/01/07. eng)
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2011) Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS). 1999–2009. National Admissions to Substance Abuse Treatment Services, DASIS Series: S-56, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 11-4646, Rockville, MD; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2011
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2014) Benzodiazepines in combination with opioid pain relievers or alcohol: greater risk of more serious ED visit outcomes, 18 Dec 2014
Therapeutic Guidelines Limited (2015) TG complete: psychotropic guidelines. Melbourne. Available from: http://etg.tg.com.au/complete/
Tone A (2005) Listening to the past: history, psychiatry, and anxiety. Can J Psychiatry 50(7):373–80 (PubMed PMID: 16086534. Epub 2005/08/10. eng)
Tsimtsiou Z, Ashworth M, Jones R (2009) Variations in anxiolytic and hypnotic prescribing by GPs: a cross-sectional analysis using data from the UK quality and outcomes framework. Br J Gen Pract J Roy Coll Gen Pract 59(563):e191–8 (PubMed PMID: 19520017. Pubmed Central PMCID: 2688068)
Verster JC, Volkerts ER (2004) Clinical pharmacology, clinical efficacy, and behavioral toxicity of alprazolam: a review of the literature. CNS Drug Rev 10(1):45–76
Verster JC, Volkerts ER, Verbaten MN (2002) Effects of alprazolam on driving ability, memory functioning and psychomotor performance: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Neuropsychopharmacol 27(2):260–9
Victorri-Vigneau C, Gerardin M, Rousselet M, Guerlais M, Grall-Bronnec M, Jolliet P (2014) An update on zolpidem abuse and dependence. J Addict Dis 33(1):15–23 (PubMed PMID: 24467433. Epub 2014/01/29. eng)
Voyer P, Preville M, Cohen D, Berbiche D, Beland SG (2010) The prevalence of benzodiazepine dependence among community-dwelling older adult users in Quebec according to typical and atypical criteria. Can J Aging = La revue canadienne du vieillissement 29(2):205–213 (PubMed PMID: 20420748. Epub 2010/04/28. eng)
Walker BM, Ettenberg A (2001) Benzodiazepine modulation of opiate reward. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 9(2):191–197 (PubMed PMID: 11518095. Epub 2001/08/24. Eng)
Wick JY (2013) The history of benzodiazepines: the Consultant pharmacist. J Am Soc Consultant Pharmacists 28(9):538–548 (PubMed PMID: 24007886. Epub 2013/09/07. eng)
Woods JH, Katz JL, Winger G (1992) Benzodiazepines: use, abuse, and consequences. Pharmacol Rev 44(2):151–347 (PubMed PMID: 1356276. Epub 1992/06/01. eng)
Yen CF, Ko CH, Chang YP, Yu CY, Huang MF, Yeh YC, et al (2014) Dependence, misuse, and beliefs regarding use of hypnotics by elderly psychiatric patients taking zolpidem, estazolam, or flunitrazepam. Asia-Pac Psychiatry Official J Pac Rim Coll Psychiatrists (PubMed PMID: 25296384. Epub 2014/10/09. eng)
Zador D, Sunjic S (2000) Deaths in methadone maintenance treatment in New South Wales, Australia 1990–1995. Addiction 95(1):77–84
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Nielsen, S. (2015). Benzodiazepines. In: Nielsen, S., Bruno, R., Schenk, S. (eds) Non-medical and illicit use of psychoactive drugs. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, vol 34. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2015_425
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2015_425
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-60014-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-60016-1
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)