Abstract
Plastics and microplastics are nowadays ubiquitously found in the environment. This has raised concerns on possible adverse effects for human health and the environment. To date, extensive information exists on their occurrence in the marine environment. However, information on their different sources and their transport within and across different freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems is still limited. Therefore, we assessed the current knowledge regarding the industrial sources of plastics and microplastics, their environmental pathways and load rates and their occurrence and fate in different environmental compartments, thereby highlighting important data gaps which are needed to better describe their global environmental cycle and exposure. This study shows that the quantitative assessment of the contribution of the different major sources of plastics, microplastics and nanoplastics to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems is challenged by some data limitations. While the presence of microplastics in wastewater and freshwater is relatively well studied, data on sediments and especially soil ecosystems are too limited. Moreover, the overall occurrence of large-sized plastics, the patterns of microplastic and nanoplastic formation from them, the presence and deposition of plastic particles from the atmosphere and the fluxes of all kinds of plastics from soils towards aquatic environments (e.g. by surface water runoff, soil infiltration) are still poorly understood. Finally, this study discusses several research areas that need urgent development in order to better understand the potential ecological risks of plastic pollution and provides some recommendations to better manage and control plastic and microplastic inputs into the environment.
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Abbreviations
- ATR:
-
Attenuated total reflectance
- ECHA:
-
European Chemicals Agency
- EEA :
-
European Environment Agency
- ERA:
-
Ecological risk assessment
- EVA:
-
Ethylene-vinyl acetate
- FTIR:
-
Fourier transform infrared
- MaP:
-
Macroplastic
- MP:
-
Microplastic
- NP:
-
Nanoplastic
- PA:
-
Polyamide
- PAH:
-
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
- PC:
-
Polycarbonate
- PCB:
-
Polychlorinated biphenyl
- PE:
-
Polyethylene
- PEC:
-
Predicted environmental concentration
- PES:
-
Polyester
- PET:
-
Polyethylene terephthalate
- PMMA:
-
Polymethyl methacrylate
- PNEC:
-
Predicted no effect concentration
- PP:
-
Polypropylene
- PS:
-
Polystyrene
- PUR:
-
Polyurethane
- PVC:
-
Polyvinylchloride
- Pyr-GC/MS :
-
Pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
- SAPEA :
-
Science Advice for Policy by European Academies
- SEM:
-
Scanning electron microscopy
- WWTP:
-
Wastewater treatment plant
- XRF:
-
X-ray fluorescence
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Acknowledgements
The study has been conducted as part of the EU JPI-Water initiative IMPASSE project (Impacts of MicroPlastics in AgroSystems and Stream Environments, PCIN-2017-016). A. Rico is supported by a postdoctoral grant provided by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and University (IJCI-2017-33465).
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
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Fig. S1
MP concentrations in sludge samples (MPs/kg dw). A2O = anaerobic-anoxic-aerobic; SBR = sequence batch reactor. References: [1] Lee and Kim (2018) [2] Liu et al. (2019b) [3] Lares et al. (2018) [4] Talvitie et al. (2017b) [5] Magnusson and Norén (2014) [6] Vollertsen and Hansen (2017) [7] Leslie et al. (2017) [8] Mahon et al. (2017) [9] Murphy et al. (2016) [10] Mintenig et al. (2017) [11] Magni et al. (2019) [12] Carr et al. (2016) [13] Zubris and Richards (2005) [14] Gies et al. (2018) (DOCX 182 kb)
Fig. S2
MP concentrations in different soil samples (MPs/kg of mg/kg). Aus = Australia; N A = North Amercia: S A = South America. References: [1] Zhang et al. (2018) [2] Zhang and Liu (2018) [3] Liu et al. (2018) [4] Fuller and Gautam (2016) [5] Vollertsen and Hansen (2017) [6] Piehl et al. (2018) [7] Scheurer and Bigalke (2018) [8] Zubris and Richards (2005) [9] Huerta Lwanga et al. (2017) [10] Corradini et al. (2019) (DOCX 228 kb)
Table S1
Concentration and removal of MPs in municipal WWTPs with different treatment types, lowest mesh size or lowest size limit, identification method (Id method), shapes and polymer composition in the effluent. Bold numbers represent the median concentration instead of the mean concentration. ∗ Dominant shape or polymer composition. NR = not reported. Treatment type: P= Primary; S = Secondary; T = tertiary. ID method: Vis = Visually identified using a microscope; RS = Raman spectroscopy. Shapes: Be = Bead; Fib= Fibre; Fil = Film; Frag = Fragment, Fla = Flakes; Foa = Foam; Li = Line; Oth = Others; Pel = Pellet; Par = Particles; Sp = Sphere (DOCX 59 kb)
Table S2
Concentration of MPs in sludge from municipal WWTPs with percentage retained in sludge, lowest assessed mesh size, identification method (ID method) and shape and polymer compositions in the effluent. Bold numbers represent the median concentration instead of the mean concentration. ∗ Dominant shape or polymer composition. NR = not reported. ID method: Vis = Visual assessment using a microscope; RS = Raman spectroscopy; DSC = differential scanning calorimeter. Shapes: Bead = Bead; Fib = Fibre; Frag = Fragment; Fil = Film; Fla = Flakes; Foa = Foam; Li = Lines; Par = Particles: Sp = Spheres; Oth = Others (DOCX 54 kb)
Table S3
Concentration of MPs and MAPs in different soil types with identification method (ID method) and reported shapes and polymer composition. Bold numbers represent the median concentration. ∗ Dominant shape or polymer composition. NR = not reported. Dw = dry weight; ww = wet weight. Id method: Vis = Visual assessment using a microscope. Shapes: Fib = Fibre; Frag = Fragment; Fil = Film; Pel = Pellets (DOCX 51 kb)
Table S4
MaPs concentrations reported in different waterbodies with sample type, lowest assessed size and observed plastic types (DOCX 47 kb)
Table S5
Concentration of MPs in different waterbodies with sample type, mesh size limit, identification methods (ID method), reported shapes and polymer compositions. Bold numbers represent the median concentration; ∗ Concentration in MPs/m3 was estimated by dividing the reported concentration in particles per area by the height of the net used for sampling; ∗∗ Dominant shape or polymer composition. NR = not reported. dw = dry weight. ww = wet weight. L = Lake. R = River. Sample type: T = Trawl net; F = water pumped/filtered through sieve/net; G = Grab water; N = Nets (e.g. plankton or neuston) stationary utilised in the river flow. ID method: Vis = Visual assessment using a microscope; RS = Raman Spectroscopy; UV-M = UV Microscope. Shapes: Bea = Bead; Fib = Fibre; Fil = Film; Fila = Filament; Foa = Foam; Foi = Foil; Gra = Granule; Li= Lines; Pel = Pellet: Composition: Ray = Rayon; She = Sheet; Sph = Sphere/Spherule; TA = terephthalic acid; Oth = Others (DOCX 74 kb)
Table S6
Concentration of MaPs in sediments of different waterbodies with sample type, lowest assessed size and observed plastic types. Bold numbers represent the median concentration (DOCX 47 kb)
Table S7
Concentration of MPs sediments of different waterbodies with sample type, mesh size limit, Identification method (ID method), reported shapes and polymer compositions. The sediment type for river sediment was categorized as bed sediment if the type was not clearly stated. ∗∗ Dominant shape or polymer composition. Bold numbers represent the median concentration; ∗ Concentration in MPs/kg was estimated by using the sample depth and assuming a density of 1.6 g/cm3 for the sediment; ∗∗ Most common shape or polymer type observed. NR = not reported. Sp = Spring. Su = Summer. Au = Autumn. Wi = Winter. Waterbody: R = River; Tri = Tributaries; L = Lake. Sample type: B = Bed sediment.; Bch = Beach sediment; S = Shore sediment. ID method: Vis = Visual assessment using a microscope; RS = Raman Spectroscopy; UV-M = UV Microscope. Shapes: Bea = Bead; Fib = Fibre; Fil = Film; Fila = Filament; Foa = Foam; Foi = Foil; Gra = Granule; Li = Lines; Pel = Pellet; Ray = Rayon; She = Sheet; Sph = Sphere/Spherule; Oth = Others. Polymers: NC = cellulose nitrate; TA = terephthalic acid (DOCX 65 kb)
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Schell, T., Rico, A., Vighi, M. (2020). Occurrence, Fate and Fluxes of Plastics and Microplastics in Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems. In: de Voogt, P. (eds) Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 250. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol 250. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2019_40
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2019_40
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