Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Suggested Reading
Janeway CA, Travers P, Walport M, Shlomchik M (2001) Immunobiology, 5th edn. Garland, New York
Roitt I, Delves PJ (2001) Roitt’s essential immunology, 10th edn. Blackwell, London
References
Bergstresser PR (1989) Sensitization and elicitation of inflammation in contact dermatitis. In: Norris DA (ed) Immune mechanisms in cutaneous disease. Dekker, New York, pp 219–246
Turk JL (1975) Delayed hypersensitivity, 2nd edn. North-Holland, Amsterdam
Gell PDH, Coombs RRA, Lachman R (1975) Clinical aspects of immunology, 3rd edn. Blackwell, London
Mestas J, Hughes CC (2004) Of mice and not men: differences between mouse and human immunology. J Immunol 172:2731–2738
Saint-Mezard P, Krasteva M, Chavagnac C, Bosset S, Akiba H, Kehren J, Kanitakis J, Kaiserlian D, Nicolas JF, Berard F (2003) Afferent and efferent phases of allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) can be induced after a single skin contact with haptens: evidence using a mouse model of primary ACD. J Invest Dermatol 120:641–647
Bos JD, Meinardi MMHM (2000) The 500 Dalton rule for the skin penetration of chemical compounds and drugs. Exp Dermatol 9:165–169
Roberts DW, Lepoittevin J-P (1998) Hapten-protein interactions. In: Lepoittevin J-P, Basketter DA, Goossens A, Karlberg A-T (eds) Allergic contact dermatitis. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 81–1118
Eliasson E, Kenna JG (1996) Cytochrome P450 2E1 is a cell surface autoantigen in halothane hepatitis. Mol Pharmacol 50:573–582
Budinger L, Hertl M (2000) Immunologic mechanisms in hypersensitivity reactions to metal ions: an overview. Allergy 55:108–115
Blauvelt A, Hwang ST, Udey MC (2003) Allergic and immunologic diseases of the skin. J Allergy Clin Immunol 111:S560–S570
Kimber I, Dearman RJ (2002) Allergic contact dermatitis: the cellular effectors. Contact Dermatitis 46:1–5
Liberato DJ, Byers VS, Ennick RG, Castagnoli N (1981) Region specific attack of nitrogen and sulfur nucleophiles on quinones from poison oak/ivy catechols (urushiols) and analogues as models for urushiol-protein conjugate formation. J Med Chem 24:28–33
Kalish RS, Wood JA, LaPorte A (1994) Processing of urushiol (poison ivy) hapten by both endogenous and exogenous pathways for presentation to T cells in vitro. J Clin Invest 93:2039–2047
Naisbitt DJ (2004) Drug hypersensitivity reactions in skin: understanding mechanisms and the development of diagnostic and predictive tests. Toxicology 194:179–196
Krasteva M, Nicolas JF, Chabeau G, Garrigue JL, Bour H, Thivolet J, Schmitt D (1993) Dissociation of allergenic and immunogenic functions in contact sensitivity to para-phenylenediamine. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 102:200–204
Merk HF, Abel J, Baron JM, Krutmann J (2004) Molecular pathways in dermatotoxicology. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 195:267–277
Epling GA, Wells JL, Ung Chan Yoon (1988) Photochemical transformations in salicylanilide photoallergy. Photochem Photobiol 47:167–171
Schnuch A, Westphal GA, Muller MM, Schulz TG, Geier J, Brasch J, Merk HF, Kawakubo Y, Richter G, Koch P, Fuchs T, Gutgesell T, Reich K, Gebhardt M, Becker D, Grabbe J, Szliska C, Aberer W, Hallier E (1998) Genotype and phenotype of N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2) polymorphism in patients with contact allergy. Contact Dermatitis 38:209–211
Patlewicz GY, Basketter DA, Pease CK, Wilson K, Wright ZM, Roberts DW, Bernard G, Arnau EG, Lepoittevin JP (2004) Further evaluation of quantitative structure-activity relationship models for the prediction of the skin sensitization potency of selected fragrance allergens. Contact Dermatitis 50:91–97
Wilson NS, Villadangos JA (2004) Lymphoid organ dendritic cells: beyond the Langerhans cells paradigm. Immunol Cell Biol 82:91–98
Hoath SB, Leahy DG (2003) The organization of human epidermis: functional epidermal units and phi proportionality. J Invest Dermatol 121:1440–1446
Breathnach SM (1988) The Langerhans cell.Centenary review. Br J Dermatol 119:463–469
Romani N, Holzmann S, Tripp CH, Koch F, Stoitzner P (2003) Langerhans cells — dendritic cells of the epidermis. APMIS 111:725–740
Kimber I, Dearman RJ (2003) What makes a chemical an allergen? Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 90:28–31
Inaba K, Schuler G, Witmer MD, Valinsky J, Atassi B, Steinman RM (1986) Immunologic properties of purified epidermal Langerhans cells. Distinct requirements for stimulation of unprimed and sensitized T lymphocytes. J Exp Med 164:605–613
Kimber I, Cumberbatch M (1992) Dendritic cells and cutaneous immune responses to chemical allergens. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 117:137–146
Dieu M-C, Vanbervliet B, Vicari A, Bridon J-M, Oldham E, Ait-Yahia S, Brière F, Zlotnik A, Lebecque S, Caux C (1998) Selective recruitment of immature and mature dendritic cells by distinct chemokines expressed in different anatomic sites. J Exp Med 188:373–386
Stingl G, Katz SI, Clement L, Green I, Shevach EM (1978) Immunological functions of Ia-bearing epidermal Langerhans cells. J Immunol 121:2005–2013
Czernielewski SM, Demarchez M (1987) Further evidence for the self-reproducing capacity of Langerhans cells in human skin. J Invest Dermatol 88:17–20
Streilein JW, Grammer SF (1989) In vitro evidence that Langerhans cells can adopt two functionally distinct forms capable of antigen presentation to T lymphocytes. J Immunol 143:3925–3933
Langerhans P (1868) Über die Nerven der menschlichen Haut. Virchows Arch Pathol Anat 44:325–337
Birbeck M (1961) An electron microscope study of basal melanocytes and high level clear cells (Langerhans cells) in vitiligo. J Invest Dermatol 37:51–56
Braathen LR (1980) Studies on human epidermal Langerhans cells. III. Induction of T lymphocyte response to nickel sulphate in sensitized individuals. Br J Dermatol 103:517–526
Kimber I, Dearman RJ, Cumberbatch M, Huby RJ (1998) Langerhans cells and chemical allergy. Curr Opin Immunol 10:614–619
Kimber I, Basketter DA, Gerberick GF, Dearman RJ (2002) Allergic contact dermatitis. Int Immunopharmacol 2:201–211
Park SH, Chiu YH, Jayawardena J, Roark J, Kavita U, Bendelac A (1998) Innate and adaptive functions of the CD1 pathway of antigen presentation. Semin Immunol 10:391–398
Weinlich G, Heine M, Stössel H, Zanella M, Stoitzner P, Ortner U, Smolle J, Koch F, Sepp NT, Schuler G, Romani N (1998) Entry into afferent lymphatics and maturation in situ of migrating murine cutaneous dendritic cells. J Invest Dermatol 110:441–448
Richters CD, Hoekstra MJ, van Baare J, Du Pont JS, Hoefsmit EC, Kamperdijk EW (1994) Isolation and characterization of migratory human skin dendritic cells. Clin Exp Immunol 98:330–336
Jakob T, Ring J, Udey MC (2001) Multistep navigation of Langerhans/dendritic cells in and out of the skin. J Allergy Clin Immunol 108:688–696
Ozawa H, Nakagawa S, Tagami H, Aiba S (1996) Interleukin-1b and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor mediate Langerhans cell maturation differently. J Invest Dermatol 106:441–445
Wong BR, Josien R, Lee SY, Sauter B, Li HL, Steinman RM, Choi YW (1997) TRANCE (Tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-related activation-induced cytokine), a new TNF family member predominantly expressed in T cells, is a dendritic cell-specific survival factor. J Exp Med 186:2075–2080
Aiba S, Tagami H (1999) Dendritic cell activation induced by various stimuli, eg exposure to microorganisms, their products, cytokines, and simple chemicals as well as adhesion to extracellular matrix. J Dermatol Sci 20:1–13
Inaba K, Schuler G, Steinman RM (1993) GM-CSF — a granulocyte/ macrophage/dendritic cell stimulating factor. In: Van Furth R (ed) Hemopoietic growth factors and mononuclear phagocytes. Karger, Basel, pp 187–196
Jakob T, Udey MC (1998) Regulation of E-Cadherin mediated adhesion in Langerhans cell-like dendritic cells by inflammatory mediators that mobilize Langerhans cells in vivo. J Immunol 160:4067–4073
Schwarzenberger K, Udey MC (1996) Contact allergens and epidermal proinflammatory cytokines modulate Langerhans cell E-cadherin expression in situ. J Invest Dermatol 106:553–558
Enk AH, Katz SI (1992) Early molecular events in the induction phase of contact sensitivity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:1398–1402
Enk AH, Angeloni VL, Udey MC, Katz SI (1993) An essential role for Langerhans cell-derived IL-1b in the initiation of primary immune responses in skin. J Immunol 150:3698–3704
Steinman RM, Hoffman L, Pope M (1995) Maturation and migration of cutaneous dendritic cells. J Invest Dermatol 105:2S–7S
Wang B, Esche C, Mamelak A, Freed I, Watanabe H, Sauder DN (2003) Cytokine knockouts in contact hypersensitivity research. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 14:381–389
Tang A, Amagai M, Granger LG, Stanley JR, Udey MC (1993) Adhesion of epidermal Langerhans cells to keratinocytes mediated by E-cadherin. Nature 361:82–85
Jakob T, Udey MC (1998) Regulation of E-cadherin-mediated adhesion in Langerhans cell like dendritic cells by inflammatory mediators that mobilize Langerhans cells in vivo. J Immunol 160:4067–4073
Ma J, Wing J-H, Guo Y-J, Sy M-S, Bigby M (1994) In vivo treatment with anti-ICAM-1 and antiLFA-1 antibodies inhibits contact sensitization-induced migration of epidermal Langerhans cells to regional lymph nodes. Cell Immunol 158:389–399
Rambukhana A, Bos JD, Irik D, Menko WJ, Kapsenberg ML, Das PK (1995) In situ behaviour of human Langerhans cells in skin organ culture. Lab Invest 73:521–531
Price AA, Cumberbatch M, Kimber I (1997) α6 integrins are required for Langerhans cell migration from the epidermis. J Exp Med 186:1725–1735
Weiss JM, Sleeman J, Renkl AC, Dittmar H, Termeer CC, Taxis S, Howells N, Hofmann M, Kohler G, Schöpf E, Ponta H, Herrlich P, Simon JC (1997) An essential role for CD44 variant isoforms in epidermal Langerhans cell and blood dendritic cell function. J Cell Biol 137:1137–1147
Brand CU, Hunger RE, Yawalkar N, Gerber HA, Schaffner T, Braathen LR (1999) Characterization of human skinderived CD1a-positive lymph cells. Arch Dermatol Res 291:65–72
Kobayashi Y (1997) Langerhans cells produce type IV collagenase (MMP-9) following epicutaneous stimulation with haptens. Immunol 90:496–501
Randolph GJ (2001) Dendritic cell migration to lymph nodes: cytokines, chemokines, and lipid mediators. Semin Immunol 13:267–274
Sallusto F, Lanzavecchia A, Mackay CR (1998) Chemokines and chemokine receptors in T-cell priming and Th1/Th2-mediated responses. Immunol Today 19:568–574
Zlotnik A, Morales J, Hedrick JA (1999) Recent advances in chemokines and chemokine receptors. Crit Rev Immunol 19:1–47
Caux C, Ait-Yahia S, Chemin K, de Bouteiller O, Dieu-Nosjean MC, Homey B, Massacrier C, Vanbervliet B, Zlotnik A, Vicari A (2000) Dendritic cell biology and regulation of dendritic cell trafficking by chemokines. Springer Semin Immunopathol 22:345–369
Sallusto F, Palermo B, Lenig D, Miettinen M, Matikainen S, Julkunen I, Forster R, Burgstahler R, Lipp M, Lanzavecchia A (1999) Distinct patterns and kinetics of chemokine production regulate dendritic cell function. Eur J Immunol 29:1617–1625
Saeki H, Moore AM, Brown MJ, Hwan ST (1999) Secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine (SLC) and CC chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) participate in the emigration pathway of mature dendritic cells from the skin to regional lymph nodes. J Immunol 162:2472–2475
Gunn MD, Tangemann K, Tam C, Cyster JG, Rosen SD, Williams LT (1998) A chemokine expressed in lymphoid high endothelial venules promotes the adhesion and chemotaxis of naive T lymphocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:258–263
Kim CH, Broxmeyer HE (1999) Chemokines: signal lamps for trafficking of T and B cells for development and effector function. J Leuk Biol 65:6–15
Robbiani DF, Finch RA, Jager D, Muller WA, Sartorelli AC, Randolph GJ. (2000) The leukotriene C(4) transporter MRP1 regulates CCL19 (MIP-3beta, ELC)-dependent mobilization of dendritic cells to lymph nodes. Cell 103:757–768
Honig SM, Fu S, Mao X, Yopp A, Gunn MD, Randolph GJ, Bromberg JS (2003) FTY720 stimulates multidrug transporter-and cysteinyl leukotriene-dependent T cell chemotaxis to lymph nodes. J Clin Invest 111:627–637
Sallusto F, Schaerli P, Loetscher P, Schaniel C, Lenig D, Mackay CR, Qin S, Lanzavecchia A (1998) Rapid and coordinated switch in chemokine receptor expression during dendritic cell maturation. Eur J Immunol 28:2760–2769
Cumberbatch M, Dearman RJ, Kimber I (1997) Interleukin 1-beta and the stimulation of Langerhans cell migration — comparisons with tumour necrosis factor alpha. Arch Dermatol Res 289:277–284
Heufler C, Koch F, Schuler G (1988) Granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin 1 mediate the maturation of epidermal Langerhans cells into potent immunostimulatory dendritic cells. J Exp Med 167:700–705
Furue M, Chang CH, Tamaki K (1996) Interleukin-1 but not tumor necrosis factor a synergistically upregulates the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factorinduced B7-1 expression of murine Langerhans cells. Br J Dermatol 135:194–198
Schuler G, Steinman RM (1985) Murine epidermal Langerhans cells mature into potent immune-stimulatory dendritic cells in vitro. J Exp Med 161:526–546
Haig DM, Hopkins J, Miller HRP (1999) Local immune responses in afferent and efferent lymph. Immunology 96:155–163
Altin JG, Sloan EK (1997) The role of CD45 and CD45-associated molecules in T cell activation. Immunol Cell Biol 75:430–445
Schon MP, Zollner TM, Boehncke WH (2003) The molecular basis of lymphocyte recruitment to the skin: clues for pathogenesis and selective therapies of inflammatory disorders. J Invest Dermatol 121:951–962
Von Andrian UH, Mrini C (1998) In situ analysis of lymphocyte migration to lymph nodes. Cell Adh Comm 6:85–96
Vestweber D, Blanks JE (1999) Mechanisms that regulate the function of the selectins and their ligands. Physiol Rev 79:181–213
Adema GJ, Hartgers F, Verstraten R, de Vries E, Marland G, Menon S, Foster J, Xu Y, Nooyen P, McClanahan T, Bacon KB, Figdor CG (1997) A dendritic-cell-derived C-C chemokine that preferentially attracts naive T cells. Nature 387:713–717
Ngo VN, Tang LH, Cyster JG (1998) Epstein-Barr virusinduced molecule 1 ligand chemokine is expressed by dendritic cells in lymphoid tissues and strongly attracts naive T cells and activated B cells. J Exp Med 188:181–191
Nagira M, Imai T, Hieshima K, Kusuda J, Ridanpaa M, Takagi S, Nishimura M, Kakizaki M, Nomiyama H, Yoshie O (1997) Molecular cloning of a novel human CC chemokine secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine that is a potent chemoattractant for lymphocytes and mapped to chromosome 9p13. J Biol Chem 272:19518–19524
Rustemeyer T, von Blomberg BME, de Ligter S, Frosch PJ, Scheper RJ (1999) Human T lymphocyte priming in vitro by dendritic cells. Clin Exp Immunol 117:209–216
Crivellato E, Vacca A, Ribatti D (2004) Setting the stage: an anatomist’s view of the immune system. Trends Immunol 25:210–217
Itano AA, Jenkins MK (2003) Antigen presentation to naive CD4 T cells in the lymph node. Nat Immunol 4:733–739
Griem P, Wulferink M, Sachs B, Gonzales JB, Gleichmann E (1998) Allergic and autoimmune reactions to xenobiotics: how do they arise? Immunol Today 19:133–141
Moulon C, Vollmer J, Weltzien H-U (1995) Characterization of processing requirements and metal crossreactivities in T cell clones from patients with allergic contact dermatitis to nickel. Eur J Immunol 25:3308–3315
Li QJ, Dinner AR, Qi S, Irvine DJ, Huppa JB, Davis MM, Chakraborty AK (2004) CD4 enhances T cell sensitivity to antigen by coordinating Lck accumulation at the immunological synapse. Nat Immunol 5:791–799
Schoenberger SP, Toes REM, Vandervoort EIH, Offringa R, Melief CJM (1998) T-cell help for cytotoxic T lymphocytes is mediated by CD40-CD40L interactions. Nature 393:480–483
Gascoigne NR, Zal T (2004) Molecular interactions at the T cell-antigen-presenting cell interface. Curr Opin Immunol 16:114–119
Cantrell D (1996) T cell receptor signal transduction pathways. Annu Rev Immunol 14:259–274
Kuo CT, Leiden JM (1999) Transcriptional regulation of T lymphocyte development and function. Annu Rev Immunol 17:149–187
Davis SJ, van der Merwe PA (2003) TCR triggering: co-receptor-dependent or-independent? Trends Immunol 24:624–626
Trautmann A, Randriamampita C (2003) Initiation of TCR signalling revisited. Trends Immunol 24:425–428
Acuto O, Michel F (2003) CD28-mediated co-stimulation: a quantitative support for TCR signalling. Nat Rev Immunol 3:939–951
Quezada SA, Jarvinen LZ, Lind EF, Noelle RJ (2004) CD40/CD154 interactions at the interface of tolerance and immunity. Annu Rev Immunol 22:307–328
Dong C, Nurieva RI, Prasad DV (2003) Immune regulation by novel costimulatory molecules. Immunol Res 28:39–48
Viola A, Lanzavecchia A (1996) T cell activation determined by T cell receptor number and tunable thresholds. Science 273:104–106
Banchereau J, Steinman RM (1998) Dendritic cells and the control of immunity. Nature 392:245–252
Hommel M (2004) On the dynamics of T-cell activation in lymph nodes. Immunol Cell Biol 82:62–66
Cella M, Sallusto F, Lanzavecchia A (1997) Origin, maturation and antigen presenting function of dendritic cells. Curr Opin Immunol 9:10–16
Gomez J, Gonzalez A, Martinez-A C, Rebollo A (1998) IL-2-induced cellular events. Crit Rev Immunol 18:185–220
Berridge MJ (1997) Lymphocyte activation in health and disease. Crit Rev Immunol 17:155–178
Theze J, Alzari PM, Bertoglio J (1996) Interleukin 2 and its receptors: recent advances and new immunological functions. Immunol Today 17:481–486
Lacour M, Arrighi J-F, Müller KM, Carlberg C, Saurat J-H, Hauser C (1994) cAMP up-regulates IL-4 and IL-5 production from activated CD4+ T cells while decreasing IL-2 release and NF-AT induction. Int Immunol 6:1333–1343
Linsley PS, Ledbetter JA (1993) The role of the CD28 receptor during T cell responses to antigen. Annu Rev Immunol 11:191–212
Mazzoni A, Segal DM (2004) Controlling the Toll road to dendritic cell polarization. J Leukoc Biol 75:721–30
Constant SL, Bottomly K (1997) Induction of Th1 and Th2 CD4+ T cell responses: the alternate approaches. Annu Rev Immunol 15:297–322
Nakamura T, Lee RK, Nam SY, Podack ER, Bottomly K, Flavell RA (1997) Roles of IL-4 and IFN-g in stabilizing the T helper cell type-1 and 2 phenotype. J Immunol 158:2648–2653
O’Garra A (1998) Cytokines induce the development of functionally heterogeneous T helper cell subsets. Immunity 8:275–283
Santana MA, Rosenstein Y (2003) What it takes to become an effector T cell: the process, the cells involved, and the mechanisms. J Cell Physiol 195:392–401
Sallusto F, Geginat J, Lanzavecchia A. (2004) Central memory and effector memory T cell subsets: function, generation, and maintenance. Annu Rev Immunol 22:745–763
Morel PA, Oriss TB (1998) Crossregulation between Th1 and Th2 cells. Crit Rev Immunol 18:275–303
Dabbagh K, Lewis DB (2003) Toll-like receptors and Thelper-1/T-helper-2 responses. Curr Opin Infect Dis 16:199–204
Burkett PR, Koka R, Chien M, Boone DL, Ma A (2004) Generation, maintenance, and function of memory T cells. Adv Immunol 83:191–231
Spahn TW, Kucharzik T (2004) Modulating the intestinal immune system: the role of lymphotoxin and GALT organs. Gut 53:456–465
Bour H, Peyron E, Gaucherand M, Garrigue JL, Desvignes C, Kaiserlian D, Revillard JP, Nicolas JF (1995) Major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted CD8+ T cells and class II-restricted CD4+ T cells, respectively, mediate and regulate contact sensitivity to dinitrofluorobenzene. Eur J Immunol 25:3006–3010
Kimber I, Dearman RJ (2002) Allergic contact dermatitis: the cellular effectors. Contact Dermatitis 46:1–5
Cavani A, Mei D, Guerra E, Corinti S, Giani M, Pirrotta L, Puddu P, Girolomoni G (1998) Patients with allergic contact dermatitis to nickel and nonallergic individuals display different nickel-specific T cell responses. Evidence for the presence of effector CD8+ and regulatory CD4+ T cells. J Invest Dermatol 111:621–628
Kang KF, Kubin M, Cooper KD, Lessin SR, Trinchieri G, Rook AH (1996) IL-12 synthesis by human Langerhans cells. J Immunol 156:1402–1407
Pulendran B (2004) Modulating TH1/TH2 responses with microbes, dendritic cells, and pathogen recognition receptors. Immunol Res 29:187–196
Paul WE, Ohara J (1987) B-cell stimulatory factor-1/interleukin 4. Annu Rev Immunol 5:429–459
Rogge L, Barberis-Maino L, Biffi M, Passini N, Presky DH, Gubler U, Sinigaglia F (1997) Selective expression of an interleukin-12 receptor component by human T helper 1 cells. J Exp Med 185:825–831
Nakamura T, Kamogawa Y, Bottomly K, Flavell RA (1997) Polarization of IL-4-and IFN-gamma-producing CD4(+) T cells following activation of naive CD4(+) T cells. J Immunol 158:1085–1094
Orange JS, Biron CA (1996) An absolute and restricted requirement for IL-12 in natural killer cell IFN-g production and antiviral defense. J Immunol 156: 1138–1142
Mackey MF, Barth RJ, Noelle RJ (1998) The role of CD40/CD154 interactions in the priming, differentiation, and effector function of helper and cytotoxic T cell. J Leuk Biol 63:418–428
Cella M, Scheidegger D, Palmer-Lehmann K, Lane P, Lanzavecchia A, Alber G (1996) Ligation of CD40 on dendritic cells triggers production of high levels of interleukin 12 and enhances T cell stimulatory capacity. J Exp Med 184:747–752
Ohshima Y, Tanaka Y, Tozawa H, Takahashi Y, Maliszewski C, Delespesse C (1997) Expression and function of OX40 ligand on human dendritic cells. J Immunol 159:3838–3848
Kuchroo V, Prabhu Das M, Brown JA Ranger A, Zamvill MSS, Sobel RA, Weiner HL, Nabavi N, Glimcher LH (1995) B7-1 and B7-2 costimulatory molecules activate differentially the Th1/Th2 developmental pathways. Application to autoimmune disease therapy. Cell 80:707–718
Ranger AM, Prabhu Das M, Kuchroo VK, Glimcher LH (1996) B7-2 (CD86) is essential for the development of IL-4 producing cells. Int Immunol 153:1549–1560
Schweitzer AN, Borriello F, Wong RCK, Abbas AK, Sharpe AH (1997) Role of costimulators in T cell differentiation — studies using antigen-presenting cells lacking expression of CD80 or CD86. J Immunol 158:2713–2722
Rulifson IC, Sperling AI, Fields PE, Fitch FW, Bluestone JA (1997) CD28 costimulation promotes the production of Th2 cytokines. J Immunol 158:658–665
Groux H, Sornasse T, Cottrez F, de Vries JE, Coffman RL, Roncarolo MG, Yssel H (1997) Induction of human T helper cell type-1 differentiation results in loss of IFN-g receptor b-chain expression. J Immunol 158:5627–5631
Pernis A, Gupta S, Gollob KJ, Garfein E, Coffman RL, Schindler C, Rothman P (1995) Lack of interferon gamma receptor beta chain and the prevention of interferon signaling in Th1 cells. Science 269:245–247
Gajewski TF, Fitch FW (1988) Antiproliferative effect of IFN-gamma in immune regulation. I. IFN-gamma inhibits the proliferation of Th2 but not Th1 murine helper T lymphocyte clones. J Immunol 140:4245–4252
Yoshimoto T, Takeda K, Tanaka T, Ohkusu K, Kashiwamura S, Okamura H, Akira S, Nakanishi K (1998) IL-12 upregulates IL-18 receptor expression on T cells, TH1 cells, and B cells — synergism with IL-18 for IFN-gamma production. J Immunol 161:3400–3407
Werfel T, Hentschel M, Kapp A, Renz H (1997) Dichotomy of blood-and skin-derived IL-4-producing allergen-specific T cells and restricted V beta repertoire in nickel-mediated contact dermatitis. J Immunol 158:2500–2505
Probst P, Küntzlin D, Fleischer B (1995) TH2-type infiltrating T cells in nickel-induced contact dermatitis. Cell Immunol 165:134–140
Zanni MP, Mauri-Hellweg D, Brander C, Wendland T, Schnyder B, Frei E, von Greyerz S, Bircher A, Pichler WJ (1997) Characterization of lidocaine-specific T cells. J Immunol 158:1139–1148
Perez VL, Lederer JA, Lichtman AH, Abbas AK (1995) Stability of Th1 and Th2 populations. Int Immunol 7:869–875
Rincon M, Anguita J, Nakamura T, Fikrig E, Flavell RA (1997) Interleukin (IL)-6 directs the differentiation of IL-4 producing CD4+ T cells. J Exp Med 182:1591–1596
Yoshimoto T, Bendelac A, Watson C, Hu-Li J, Paul WE (1995) Role of NK1.1+ T cells in a TH2 response and in immunoglobulin E production. Science 270:1845–1847
Hiroi T, Iwatani K, Iijima H, Kodama S, Yanagita M, Kiyono H (1998) Nasal immune system — distinctive Th0 and Th1/Th2 type environments in murine nasal-associated lymphoid tissues and nasal passage, respectively. Eur J Immunol 28:3346–3353
Banchereau J (1995) Converging and diverging properties of human interleukin-4 and interleukin-10. Behr Inst Mitteil 96:58–77
Itoh K, Hirohata S (1995) The role of IL-10 in human B cell activation, proliferation, and differentiation. J Immunol 154:4341–4350
Napolitano LM, Buzdon MM, Shi HJ, Bass BL (1997) Intestinal epithelial cell regulation cell regulation of macrophage and lymphocyte interleukin 10 expression. Arch Surg 132:1271–1276
Xu H, Banerjee A, Diulio NA, Fairchild RL (1996) T cell populations primed by hapten sensitization in contact sensitivity are distinguished by polarized patterns of cytokine production: interferon gamma-producing (Tc1) effector CD8+ T cells and interleukin (IL)-4/IL-10-producing (Th2) negative regulatory CD4+ T cells. J Exp Med 183:1001–1012
Letterio JL, Roberts AB (1998) Regulation of immune responses by TGF-beta. Annu Rev Immunol 16:137–161
Hosken NA, Shibuya K, Heath AW, Murphy KM, O’Garra A (1995) The effect of antigen dose on CD4+ T helper cell phenotype development in a T cell receptor phenotype development in a T cell receptor alpha/beta-transgenic model. J Exp Med 182:1579–1584
Constant SL, Pfeiffer C, Woodard A, Pasqualini T, Bottomly K (1995) Extent of T cell receptor ligation can determine the functional differentiation of naive CD4+ T cells. J Exp Med 5:1591–1596
Bretscher PA, Ogunremi O, Menon JN (1997) Distinct immunological states in murine cutaneous leishmaniasis by immunizing with different amounts of antigen: the generation of beneficial, potentially harmful, harmful and potentially extremely harmful states. Behring Inst Mitt 98:153–159
Kanerva L, Hyry H, Jolanki R, Hytonen M, Estlander T (1997) Delayed and immediate allergy caused by methylhexahydrophthalic anhydride. Contact Dermatitis 36:34–38
Geenen V, Brilot F (2003) Role of the thymus in the development of tolerance and autoimmunity towards the neuroendocrine system. Ann NY Acad Sci 992:186–195
Scholzen T, Armstrong CA, Bunnett NW, Luger TA, Olerud JE, Ansel JC (1998) Neuropeptides in the skin: interactions between the neuroendocrine and the skin immune systems. Exp Dermatol 7:81–96
Luger TA, Lotti T (1998) Neuropeptides: role in inflammatory skin diseases. J Eur Acad Derm Venereol 10:207–211
Lord GM, Matarese G, Howard LK, Baker RJ, Bloom SR, Lechler RI (1998) Leptin modulates the T-cell immune response and reverses starvation-induced immunosuppression. Nature 394:897–901
Morfin R, Lafaye P, Cotillon AC, Nato F, Chmielewski V, Pompon D (2000) 7 alpha-hydroxy-dehydroepiandrosterone and immune response. Ann NY Acad Sci 917:971–982
Cutolo M, Seriolo B, Villaggio B, Pizzorni C, Craviotto C, Sulli A (2002) Androgens and estrogens modulate the immune and inflammatory responses in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann NY Acad Sci 966:131–142
Kidd P (2003) Th1/Th2 balance: the hypothesis, its limitations, and implications for health and disease. Altern Med Rev 8:223–246
Piccinni MP, Giudizi MG, Biagiotti R, Beloni L, Giannarini L, Sampognaro S, Parronchi P, Manetti R, Annuziato F, Livi C, Romagnani S, Maggi E (1995) Progesterone favors the development of human T helper cells producing Th2-type cytokines and promotes both IL-4 production and membrane CD30 expression in established Th1 cell clones. J Immunol 155:128–133
Vieira PL, Kalinski P, Wierenga EA, Kapsenberg ML, Dejong EC (1998) Glucocorticoids inhibit bioactive IL-12P70 production by in vitro-generated human dendritic cells without affecting their T cell stimulatory potential. J Immunol 161:5245–5251
Calder PC, Bevan SJ, Newsholme EA (1992) The inhibition of T-lymphocyte proliferation by fatty acids is via an eicosanoid-independent mechanism. Immunology 75:108–115
Uotila P (1996) The role of cyclic AMP and oxygen intermediates in the inhibition of cellular immunity in cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother 43:1–9
Demeure CE, Yang LP, Desjardins C, Raynauld P, Delespesse G (1997) Prostaglandin E-2 primes naive T cells for the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Eur J Immunol 27:3526–3531
Abe N, Katamura K, Shintaku N, Fukui T, Kiyomasu T, Lio J, Ueno H, Tai G, Mayumi M, Furusho K (1997) Prostaglandin E2 and IL-4 provide naive CD4+ T cells with distinct inhibitory signals for the priming of IFN-gamma production. Cell Immunol 181:86–92
Kalinski P, Hilkens CMU, Snijders A, Snijdewint FGM, Kapsenberg ML (1997) IL-12 deficient dendritic cells, generated in the presence of prostaglandin E2, promote type-2 cytokine production in maturing human naive T helper cells. J Immunol 159:28–35
von Blomberg BME, Bruynzeel DP, Scheper RJ (1991) Advances in mechanisms of allergic contact dermatitis: in vitro and in vivo research. In: Marzulli FN, Maibach HI (eds) Dermatotoxicology, 4th edn. Hemisphere, New York, pp 255–362
Sallusto F, Geginat J, Lanzavecchia A (2004) Central memory and effector memory T cell subsets: function, generation, and maintenance. Annu Rev Immunol 22:745–763
Westerman J, Geismar U, Sponholz A, Bode U, Sparshott, Bell EB (1997) CD4+ T cells of both the naive and the memory phenotype enter rat lymph nodes and Peyer’s patches via high endothelial venules: within the tissue their migratory behaviour differs. Eur J Immunol 27:3174–3181
Marshall D, Haskard DO (2002) Clinical overview of leukocyte adhesion and migration: where are we now? Semin Immunol 14:133–140
Hall JG, Morris B (1965) The origin of cells in the efferent lymph from a single lymph node. J Exp Med 121:901–910
Hwang ST (2001) Mechanisms of T-cell homing to skin. Adv Dermatol 17:211–241
Pober JS, Kluger MS, Schechner JS (2001) Human endothelial cell presentation of antigen and the homing of memory/effector T cells to skin. Ann NY Acad Sci 941:12–25
Mackay CR (1993) Homing of naive, memory and effector lymphocytes. Curr Opin Immunol 5:423–427
Tietz W, Allemand Y, Borges E, Vonlaer D, Hallmann R, Vestweber D, Hamann A (1998) CD4(+) T cells migrate into inflamed skin only if they express ligands for E-and P-selectin. J Immunol 16:963–970
Rosen Homey B (2004) Chemokines and chemokine receptors as targets in the therapy of psoriasis. Curr Drug Targets Inflamm Allergy 3:169–174
Homey B, Bunemann E (2004) Chemokines and inflammatory skin diseases. Ernst Schering Res Found Workshop 4:69–83
Tanchot C, Rocha B (1998) The organization of mature T-cell pools. Immunol Today 19:575–579
Williams IR (2004) Chemokine receptors and leukocyte trafficking in the mucosal immune system. Immunol Res 29:283–292
Telemo E, Korotkova M, Hanson LA (2003) Antigen presentation and processing in the intestinal mucosa and lymphocyte homing. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 90:28–33
Picker LJ, Treer JR, Ferguson-Darnell B, Collins PA, Bergstresser PR, Terstappen LWMM (1993) Control of lymphocyte recirculation in man. II. Differential regulation of the cutaneous lymphocyte associated antigen, a tissue-selective homing receptor for skin homing T cells. J Immunol 150:1122–1136
Sunderkötter C, Steinbrink K, Henseleit U, Bosse R, Schwarz A, Vestweber D, Sorg C (1996) Activated T cells induce expression of E-selectin in vitro and in an antigen-dependent manner in vivo. Eur J Immunol 26:1571–1579
Austrup F, Vestweber D, Borges E, Lohning M, Brauer R, Herz U, Renz H, Hallmann R, Scheffold A, Radbruch A, Hamann A (1997) P-and E selectin mediate recruitment of T-helper-1 but not T-helper-2 cells into inflamed tissues. Nature 385:81–83
Borges E, Tietz W, Steegmaier M, Moll T, Hallmann R, Hamann A, Vestweber D (1997) P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) on T helper 1 but not on T helper 2 cells binds to P-selectin and supports migration into inflamed skin. J Exp Med 185:573–578
Tensen CP, Flier J, Rampersad SS, Sampat-Sardjoerpersad A, Scheper RJ, Boorsma DM, Willemze R (1999) Genomic organization, sequence and transcriptional regulation of the human CXCL 11 gene. Biochim Biophys Acta 1446:167–172
Sallusto F, Kremmer E, Palermo B, Hoy A, Ponath P, Qin SX, Forster R, Lipp M, Lanzavecchia A (1999) Switch in chemokine receptor expression upon TCR stimulation reveals novel homing potential for recently activated T cells. Eur J Immunol 29:2037–2045
Baggiolini M (1998) Chemokines and leukocyte traffic. Nature 392:565–568
Fuhlbrigge RC, Kieffer JD, Armerding D, Kupper TS (1997) Cutaneous lymphocyte antigen is a specialized form of PSGL-1 expressed on skin-homing T cells. Nature 389:978–981
Rustemeyer T, von Blomberg BME, de Ligter S, Frosch PJ, Scheper RJ (1999) Human T lymphocyte priming in vitro by haptenated autologous dendritic cells. Clin Exp Immunol 117:209–216
Milon G, Marchal G, Seman M, Truffa-Bachi P (1981) A delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction initiated by a single T lymphocyte. Agents Actions 11:612–614
Marchal G, Seman M, Milon G, Truffa-Bachi P, Zilberfarb V (1982) Local adoptive transfer of skin delayed-type hypersensitivity initiated by a single T lymphocyte. J Immunol 129:954–958
Rustemeyer T, von Blomberg BME, van Hoogstraten IMW, Bruynzeel DP, Scheper RJ (2004) Analysis of effector and regulatory immune-reactivity to nickel. Clin Exp Allergy 34(9):1458–1466
Bell EB, Sparshott SM, Bunce C (1998) CD4+ T-cell memory, CD45R subsets and the persistence of antigen — a unifying concept. Immunol Today 19:60–64
Bell EB, Sparshott SM, Ager A (1995) Migration pathways of CD4 T cell subsets in vivo: the CD45RC-subset enters the thymus via alpha 4 integrin-VCAM-1 interaction. Int Immunol 11:1861–1871
Goebeler M, Meinardus-Hager G, Roth J, Goerdt S, Sorg C (1993) Nickel chloride and cobalt chloride, two common contact sensitizers, directly induce expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule (ELAM-1) by endothelial cells. J Invest Dermatol 100:759–765
Goebeler M, Roth J, Brocker EB, Sorg C, Schulze-Osthoff K (1995) Activation of nuclear factor-kappa B and gene expression in human endothelial cells by the common haptens nickel and cobalt. J Immunol 155:2459–2467
Walsh LJ, Lavker RM, Murphy GF (1990) Determinants of immune cell trafficking in the skin. Lab Invest 63:592–600
Waldorf HA, Walsh LJ, Schechter NM, Murphy GF (1991) Early molecular events in evolving cutaneous delayed hypersensitivity in humans. Am J Pathol 138:477–486
Stoof TJ, Boorsma DM, Nickoloff BJ (1994) Keratinocytes and immunological cytokines. In: Leigh I, Lane B, Watt F (eds) The keratinocyte handbook. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 365–399
Bangert C, Friedl J, Stary G, Stingl G, Kopp T (2003) Immunopathologic features of allergic contact dermatitis in humans: participation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells in the pathogenesis of the disease? J Invest Dermatol 121:1409–1418
Houck G, Saeed S, Stevens GL, Morgan MB (2004) Eczema and the spongiotic dermatoses: a histologic and pathogenic update. Semin Cutan Med Surg 23:39–45
Silberberg-Sinakin I, Thorbecke GJ, Baer RL, Rosenthal SA, Berezowsky V (1976) Antigen-bearing Langerhans cells in skin, dermal lymphatics, and in lymph nodes. Cell Immunol 25:137–151
Hill S, Edwards AJ, Kimber I, Knight SC (1990) Systemic migration of dendritic cells during contact sensitization. Immunology 71:277–281
Sterry W, Künne N, Weber-Matthiesen K, Brasch J, Mielke V (1991) Cell trafficking in positive and negative patch test reactions: demonstration of a stereotypic migration pathway. J Invest Dermatol 96:459–462
Herzog WR, Meade R, Pettinicchi A, Ptak W, Askenase PW (1989) Nude mice produce a T cell-derived antigen-binding factor that mediates the early component of delayedtype hypersensitivity. J Immunol 142:1803–1812
Willis CM, Young E, Brandon DR, Wilkinson JD (1986) Immunopathological and ultrastructural findings in human allergic and irritant contact dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 115:305–316
Brasch J, Burgard J, Sterry W (1992) Common pathways in allergic and irritant contact dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 98:166–170
Hoefakker S, Caubo M, van’ t Herve EHM, Roggeveen MJ, Boersma WJA, van Joost Th, Notten WRF, Claassen E (1995) In vivo cytokine profiles in allergic and irritant contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 33:258–266
Flier J, Boorsma DM, Bruynzeel DP, van Beek PJ, Stoof TJ, Scheper RJ, Willemze R, Tensen CP (1999) The CXCR3 activating chemokines IP-10, MIG and IP-9 are expressed in allergic but not in irritant patch test reactions. J Invest Dermatol 113:574–578
Tensen CP, Flier J, van der Raaij-Helmer EM, Sampat-Sardjoepersad S, van den Schors RC, Leurs R, Scheper RJ, Boorsma DM, Willemze R (1999) Human IP-9: a keratinocyte derived high affinity CXC-chemokine ligand for the IP-10/Mig receptor (CXCR3). J Invest Dermatol 112:716–722
Kondo S, Sauder DN (1995) Epidermal cytokines in allergic contact dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 33:786–800
Wardorf HA, Walsh LJ, Schechter NM (1991) Early cellular events in evolving cutaneous delayed hypersensitivity in humans. Am J Pathol 138:477–486
Pober JS, Bevilacqua MP, Mendrick DL, Lapierre LA, Fiers W, Gimbrone MA Jr (1986) Two distinct monokines, interleukin 1 and tumor necrosis factor, each independently induce biosynthesis and transient expression of the same antigen on the surface of cultured human vascular endothelial cells. J Immunol 136:1680–1687
Shimizu Y, Newman W, Gopal TV, Horgan KJ, Graber N, Beall LD, van Seventer GA, Shaw S (1991) Four molecular pathways of T cell adhesion to endothelial cells: roles of LFA-1, VCAM-1, and ELAM-1 and changes in pathway hierarchy under different activation conditions. J Cell Biol 113:1203–1212
Ross R, Gilitzer C, Kleinz R, Schwing J, Kleinert H, Forstermann U, Reske-Kunz AB (1998) Involvement of NO in contact hypersensitivity. Int Immunol 10:61–69
Virag L, Szabo E, Bakondi E, Bai P, Gergely P, Hunyadi J, Szabo C (2002) Nitric oxide-peroxynitrite-poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase pathway in the skin. Exp Dermatol 11:189–202
Rowe A, Farrell AM, Bunker CB (1997) Constitutive endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthase in inflammatory dermatoses. Br J Dermatol 136:18–23
Szepietowski JC, McKenzie RC, Keohane SG, Walker C, Aldridge RD, Hunter JA (1997) Leukaemia inhibitory factor: induction in the early phase of allergic contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 36:21–25
Yu X, Barnhill RL, Graves DT (1994) Expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in delayed type hypersensitivity reactions in the skin. Lab Invest 71:226–235
Buchanan KL, Murphy JW (1997) Kinetics of cellular infiltration and cytokine production during the efferent phase of a delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction. Immunology 90:189–197
Ptak W, Askenase PW, Rosenstein RW, Gershon RK (1982) Transfer of an antigen-specific immediate hypersensitivity-like reaction with an antigen-binding factor produced by T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 79: 1969–1973
Van Loveren H, Ratzlaff RE, Kato K, Meade R, Ferguson TA, Iverson GM, Janeway CA, Askenase PW (1986) Immune serum from mice contact-sensitized with picryl chloride contains an antigen-specific T cell factor that transfers immediate cutaneous reactivity. Eur J Immunol 16:1203–1208
Ptak W, Herzog WR, Askenase PW (1991) Delayed-type hypersensitivity initiation by early-acting cells that are antigen mismatched or MHC incompatible with late-acting, delayed-type hypersensitivity effector T cells. J Immunol 146:469–475
Tsuji RF, Geba GP, Wang Y, Kawamoto K, Matis LA, Askenase PW (1997) Required early complement activation in contact sensitivity with generation of local C5-dependent chemotactic activity, and late T cell interferon g: a possible initiating role of B cells. J Exp Med 186:1015–1026
Askenase PW, Kawikova I, Paliwal V, Akahira-Azuma M, Gerard C, Hugli T, Tsuji R (1999) A new paradigm of T cell allergy: requirement for the B-1 B cell subset. Int Arch All Appl Immunol 118:145–149
Hardy RR, Hayakawa K (1994) CD5+ B cells, a fetal B cell lineage. Adv Immunol 55:297–339
Askenase PW, Kawikova I, Paliwal V, Akahira-Azuma M, Gerard C, Hugli T, Tsuji R (1999) A new paradigm of T cell allergy: requirement for the B-1 cell subset. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 118:145–149
Feinstein A, Richardson N, Taussig MJ (1986) Immunoglobulin flexibility in complement activation. Immunol Today 7:169–173
Van Loweren H, Meade R, Askenase PW (1983) An early component of delayed type hypersensitivity mediated by T cells and mast cells. J Exp Med 157:1604–1617
Geba GP, Ptak W, Anderson GA, Ratzlaff RE, Levin J, Askenase PW (1996) Delayed-type hypersensitivity in mast cell deficient mice: dependence on platelets for expression on contact sensitivity. J Immunol 157:557–565
Foreman KE, Vaporciyan AA, Bonish BK, Jones ML, Johnson KJ, Glovsky MM, Eddy SM, Ward PA (1994) C5a-induced expression of P-selectin in endothelial cells. J Clin Invest 94:1147–1155
Groves RW, Allen MH, Ross EL, Barker JN, MacDonald DM (1995) Tumor necrosis factor alpha is pro-inflammatory in normal human skin and modulates cutaneous adhesion molecule expression. Br J Dermatol 132:345–352
Nataf S, Davoust N, Ames RS, Barnum SR (1999) Human T cells express the C5a receptor and are chemoattracted to C5a. J Immunol 162:4018–4023
Wilkinson SM, Mattey DL, Beck MH (1994) IgG antibodies and early intradermal reactions to hydrocortisone in patients with cutaneous delayed-type hypersensitivity to hydrocortisone. Br J Dermatol 131:495–498
Shirakawa T, Kusaka Y, Morimoto K (1992) Specific IgE antibodies to nickel in workers with known reactivity to cobalt. Clin Exp Allergy 22:213–218
Redegeld FA, Nijkamp FP (2003) Immunoglobulin free light chains and mast cells: pivotal role in T-cell-mediated immune reactions? Trends Immunol 24:181–185
Salerno A, Dieli F (1998) Role of gamma delta T lymphocytes in immune response in humans and mice. Crit Rev Immunol 18:327–357
Szczepanik M, Lewis J, Geba GP, Ptak W, Askenase PW (1998) Positive regulatory gamma-delta T cells in contact sensitivity — augmented responses by in vivo treatment with anti-gamma-delta monoclonal antibody, or anti-Vgamma-5 or V-delta-4. Immunol Invest 27:1–15
Dieli F, Ptak W, Sireci G, Romano GC, Potestio M, Salerno A, Asherson GL (1998) Cross-talk between V-beta-8(+) and gamma-delta(+) T lymphocytes in contact sensitivity. Immunology 93:469–477
Tang HL, Cyster JG (1999) Chemokine up-regulation and activated T cell attraction by maturing dendritic cells. Science 284:819–822
Scheper RJ, van Dinther-Janssen AC, Polak L (1985) Specific accumulation of hapten-reactive T cells in contact sensitivity reaction sites. J Immunol 134:1333–1336
Macatonia SE, Knight SC, Edwards AJ, Griffiths S, Fryer P (1987) Localization of antigen on lymph node dendritic cells after exposure to the contact sensitizer fluorescein isothiocyanate. Functional and morphological studies. J Exp Med 166:1654–1667
Lappin MB, Kimber I, Norval M (1996) The role of dendritic cells in cutaneous immunity. Arch Dermatol Res 288:109–121
Vana G, Meingassner JG. (2000) Morphologic and immunohistochemical features of experimentally induced allergic contact dermatitis in Gottingen minipigs. Vet Pathol 37:565–80
Teraki Y, Picker LJ (1997) Independent regulation of cutaneous lymphocyte-associated antigen expression and cytokine synthesis phenotype during human CD4+ memory T cell differentiation. J Immunol 159:6018–6029
Butcher EC, Picker LJ (1996) Lymphocyte homing and homeostasis. Science 272:60–66
Strunk D, Egger C, Leitner G, Hanau D, Stingl G (1997) A skin homing molecule defines the Langerhans cell progenitor in human peripheral blood. J Exp Med 185:1131–1136
Wroblewski M, Hamann A (1997) CD45-mediated signals can trigger shedding of lymphocyte L-selectin. Int Immunol 9:555–562
Burastero SE, Rossi GA, Crimi E (1998) Selective differences in the expression of the homing receptors of helper lymphocyte subsets. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 89:110–116
Wahbi A, Marcusson JA, Sundqvist KG (1996) Expression of adhesion molecules and their ligands in contact allergy. Exp Dermatol 5:12–19
Dailey MO (1998) Expression of T lymphocyte adhesion molecules: regulation during antigen-induced T cell activation and differentiation. Crit Rev Immunol 18:153–184
Oppenheimer-Marks N, Lipsky PE (1997) Migration of naive and memory T cells. Immunol Today 18:456–457
Romanic AM, Graesser D, Baron JL, Visintin I, Janeway CA Jr, Madri JA (1997) T cell adhesion to endothelial cells and extracellular matrix is modulated upon transendothelial cell migration. Lab Invest 76:11–23
Zanni MP, von Greyerz S, Schnyder B, Brander KA, Frutig K, Hari Y, Valitutti S, Pichler WJ (1998) HLA-restricted, processing-and metabolism-independent pathway of drug recognition by human alpha beta T lymphocytes. J Clin Invest 102:1591–1598
Akdis CA, Akdis M, Simon HU, Blaser K (1999) Regulation of allergic inflammation by skin-homing T cells in allergic eczema. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 118:140–4
Okazaki F, Kanzaki H, Fujii K, Arata J, Akiba H, Tsujii K, Iwatsuki K (2002) Initial recruitment of interferon-gamma-producing CD8+ effector cells, followed by infiltration of CD4+ cells in 2,4,6-trinitro-1-chlorobenzene (TNCB)-induced murine contact hypersensitivity reactions. J Dermatol 29:699–708
Pichler WJ, Schnyder B, Zanni MP, Hari Y, von Greyerz S (1998) Role of T cells in drug allergies. Allergy 53:225–232
Kehren J, Desvignes C, Krasteva M, Ducluzeau MT, Assossou O, Horand F, Hahne M, Kagi D, Kaiserlian D, Nicolas JF (1999) Cytotoxicity is mandatory for CD8+ T cell mediated contact hypersensitivity. J Exp Med 189:779–786
Mauri-Hellweg D, Bettens F, Mauri D, Brander C, Hunziker T, Pichler WJ (1995) Activation of drug-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in individuals allergic to sulfonamides, phenytoin, and carbamazepine. J Immunol 155:462–472
Abe M, Kondo T, Xu H, Fairchild RL (1996) Interferongamma inducible protein (IP-10) expression is mediated by CD8+ T cells and is regulated by CD4+ T cells during the elicitation of contact hypersensitivity. J Invest Dermatol 107:360–366
Stark GR, Kerr IM, Williams BRG, Silverman RH, Schreiber RD (1998) How cells respond to interferons. Annu Rev Biochem 67:227–264
Rowe A, Bunker CB (1998) Interleukin-4 and the interleukin-4 receptor in allergic contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 38:36–39
Asherson GL, Dieli F, Sireci G, Salerno A (1996) Role of IL-4 in delayed type hypersensitivity. Clin Exp Immunol 103:1–4
Yamada H, Matsukura M, Yudate T, Chihara J, Stingl G, Tezuka T (1997) Enhanced production of RANTES, an eosinophil chemoattractant factor, by cytokine-stimulated epidermal keratinocytes. Int Arch Aller Immunol 114:28–32
Moser B, Loetscher M, Piali L, Loetscher P (1998) Lymphocyte responses to chemokines. Int Rev Immunol 16:323–3244
Siveke JT, Hamann A (1998) T helper 1 and T helper 2 Cells respond differentially to chemokines. J Immunol 160:550–554
Moed H, Boorsma DM, Stoof TJ, von Blomberg BM, Bruynzeel DP, Scheper RJ, Gibbs S, Rustemeyer T (2004) Nickel-responding T cells are CD4+ CLA+ CD45RO+ and express chemokine receptors CXCR3, CCR4 and CCR10. Br J Dermatol 151:32–41
Asada H, Linton J, Katz SI (1997) Cytokine gene expression during the elicitation phase of contact sensitivity-regulation by endogenous IL-4. J Invest Dermatol 108:406–411
Kitagaki H, Fujisawa S, Watanabe K, Hayakawa K, Shiohara T (1995) Immediate-type hypersensitivity response followed by late reaction is induced by repeated epicutaneous application of contact sensitizing agents in mice. J Invest Dermatol 105:749–755
Carroll JM, Crompton T, Seery JP, Watt FM (1997) Transgenic mice expressing IFN-gamma in the epidermis have eczema, hair hypopigmentation, and hair loss. J Invest Dermatol 108:412–422
Lider O, Cahalon L, Gilat D, Hershkoviz R, Siegel D, Margalit R, Shoseyov O, Cohen IR (1995) A disaccharide that inhibits tumor necrosis factor alpha is formed from the extracellular matrix by the enzyme heparinase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:5037–5041
Kothny-Wilkes G, Kulms D, Poppelmann B, Luger TA, Kubin M, Schwarz T (1998) Interleukin-1 protects transformed keratinocytes from tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand. J Biol Chem 273:29247–2953
Orteu CH, Poulter LW, Rustin MHA, Sabin CA, Salmon M, Akbar AN (1998) The role of apoptosis in the resolution of T cell-mediated cutaneous inflammation. J Immunol 161:1619–1629
Zhang X, Brunner T, Carter L, Dutton RW, Rogers P, Bradley L, Sato T, Reed JC, Green D, Swain SL (1997) Unequal death in T helper cell (Th)1 and Th2 effectors: Th1, but not Th2, effectors undergo rapid Fas/FasL-mediated apoptosis. J Exp Med 185:1837–1849
Enk AH, Katz SI (1992) Identification and induction of keratinocyte-derived IL-10. J Immunol 149:92–95
Schwarz A, Grabbe S, Riemann H, Aragane Y, Simon M, Manon S, Andrade S, Luger TA, Zlotnik A, Schwarz T (1994) In vivo effects of interleukin-10 on contact hypersensitivity and delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions. J Invest Dermatol 103:211–216
Berg DJ, Leach MW, Kuhn R, Rajewsky K, Muller W, Davidson NJ, Rennick D (1995) Interleukin 10 but not interleukin 4 is a natural suppressant of cutaneous inflammatory responses. J Exp Med 182:99–108
Lalani I, Bhol K, Ahmed AR (1997) Interleukin-10 biology, role in inflammation and autoimmunity. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 79:469–484
Epstein SP, Baer RL, Thorbecke GJ, Belsito DV (1991) Immunosuppressive effects of transforming growth factor beta: inhibition of the induction of Ia antigen on Langerhans cells by cytokines and of the contact hypersensitivity response. J Invest Dermatol 96:832–837
Lawrence JN, Dickson FM, Benford DJ (1997) Skin irritant-induced cytotoxicity and prostaglandin E-2 release in human skin keratinocyte cultures. Toxicol Vitro 11:627–631
Walker C, Kristensen F, Bettens F, deWeck AL (1983) Lymphokine regulation of activated (G1) lymphocytes. I. Prostaglandin E2-induced inhibition of interleukin 2 production. J Immunol 130:1770–1773
Weston MC, Peachell PT (1998) Regulation of human mast cell and basophil function by cAMP. Gen Pharmacol 31:715–719
Dvorak HF, Mihm MC Jr, Dvorak AM (1976) Morphology of delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions in man. J Invest Dermatol 64:391–401
Marone G, Spadaro G, Patella V, Genovese A (1994) The clinical relevance of basophil releasability. J Aller Clin Immunol 94:1293–1303
Lundeberg L, Mutt V, Nordlind K (1999) Inhibitory effect of vasoactive intestinal peptide on the challenge phase of allergic contact dermatitis in humans. Acta Derm Venereol 79:178–182
Boerrigter GH, Scheper RJ (1987) Local and systemic desensitization induced by repeated epicutaneous hapten application. J Invest Dermatol 88:3–7
Jensen CS, Menne T, Lisby S, Kristiansen J, Veien NK (2003) Experimental systemic contact dermatitis from nickel: a dose-response study. Contact Dermatitis 49:124–132
Hindsen M, Bruze M, Christensen OB (2001) Flare-up reactions after oral challenge with nickel in relation to challenge dose and intensity and time of previous patch test reactions. J Am Acad Dermatol 44:616–623
Larsson A, Moller H, Björkner B, Bruze M (1997) Morphology of endogenous flare-up reactions in contact allergy to gold. Acta Derm Venereol 77:474–479
Skog E (1976) Spontaneous flare-up reactions induced by different amounts of 1,3-dinitro-4-chlorobenzene. Acta Derm Venereol 46:386–395
Scheper RJ, von Blomberg BME, Boerrigter GH, Bruynzeel D, van Dinther A, Vos A (1983) Induction of local memory in the skin. Role of local T cell retention. Clin Exp Immunol 51:141–148
Moed H, Boorsma DM, Tensen CP, Flier J, Jonker MJ, Stoof TJ, von Blomberg BM, Bruynzeel DP, Scheper RJ, Rustemeyer T, Gibbs S (2004) Increased CCL27-CCR10 expression in allergic contact dermatitis: implications for local skin memory. J Pathol 204:39–46
Christensen OB, Beckstead JH, Daniels TE, Maibach HI (1985) Pathogenesis of orally induced flare-up reactions at old patch sites in nickel allergy. Acta Derm Venereol 65:298–304
Hindsen M, Christensen OB (1992) Delayed hypersensitivity reactions following allergic and irritant inflammation. Acta Derm Venereol 72:220–221
Gawkrodger DJ, McVittie E, Hunter JA (1987) Immunophenotyping of the eczematous flare-up reaction in a nickel-sensitive subject. Dermatology 175:171–177
Polak L, Turk JL (1968) Studies on the effect of systemic administration of sensitizers in guinea-pigs with contact sensitivity to inorganic metal compounds. II. The flare-up of previous test sites of contact sensitivity and the development of a generalized rash. Clin Exp Immunol 3:253–262
Qin S, Rottman JB, Myers P, Kassam N, Weinblatt M, Loetscher M, Koch AE, Moser B, Mackay CR (1998) The chemokine receptors CXCR3 and CCR5 mark subsets of T cells associated with certain inflammatory reactions. J Clin Invest 101:746–754
Isaksson M, Bruze M (2003) Late patch-test reactions to budesonide need not be a sign of sensitization induced by the test procedure. Am J Contact Dermatol 14:154–156
Rustemeyer T, de Groot J, von Blomberg BME, Frosch PJ, Scheper RJ (2002) Assessment of contact allergen crossreactivity by retesting. Exp Dermatol 11:257–265
Matura M (1998) Contact allergy to locally applied corticosteroids. Thesis, Leuven Belgium
Inerot A, Moller H (2000) Symptoms and signs reported during patch testing. Am J Contact Dermatol 11:49–52
Zinkernagel RM (2004) On “reactivity” versus “tolerance”. Immunol Cell Biol 82:343–352
Piccirillo CA, Thornton AM (2004) Cornerstone of peripheral tolerance: naturally occurring CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. Trends Immunol 25:374–380
Rocha B, von Boehmer H (1991) Peripheral selection of the T cell repertoire. Science 251:1225–1228
Benson JM, Whitacre CC (1997) The role of clonal deletion and anergy in oral tolerance. Res Immunol 148:533–541
Ferber I, Schönrich G, Schenkel J, Mellor AL, Hämmerling GJ, Arnold B (1994) Levels of peripheral T cell tolerance induced by different doses of tolerogen. Science 263:674–67
Arnold B, Schönrich G, Hämmerling GJ (1993) Multiple levels of peripheral tolerance. Immunol Today 14:12–1
Morgan DJ, Kreuwel HTC, Sherman LA (1999) Antigen concentration and precursor frequency determine the rate of CD8(+) T cell tolerance to peripherally expressed antigens. J Immunol 163:723–727
Shreedhar V, Giese T, Sung VW, Ullrich SE (1998) A cytokine cascade including prostaglandin E2, IL-4, and IL-10 is responsible for UV-induced systemic immune suppression. J Immunol 160:3783–3789
Semma M, Sagami S (1981) Induction of suppressor T cells to DNFB contact sensitivity by application of sensitizer through Langerhans cell-deficient skin. Arch Dermatol Res 271:361–364
Taams LS, van Eden W, Wauben MHM (1999) Dose-dependent induction of distinct anergic phenotypes: multiple levels of T cell anergy. J Immunol 162:1974–1981
Girolomoni G, Gisondi P, Ottaviani C, Cavani A (2004) Immunoregulation of allergic contact dermatitis. J Dermatol 31:264–270
Mayer L, Sperber K, Chan L, Child J, Toy L (2001) Oral tolerance to protein antigens. Allergy 56:12–15
Van Hoogstraten IMW, Andersen JE, von Blomberg BME, Boden D, Bruynzeel DP, Burrows D, Camarasa JMG, Dooms-Goossens A, Lahti A, Menné T, Rycroft R, Todd D, Vreeburg KJJ, Wilkinson JD, Scheper RJ (1989) Preliminary results of a multicenter study on the incidence of nickel allergy in relationship to previous oral and cutaneous contacts. In: Frosch PJ, Dooms-Goossens A, Lachapelle JM, Rycroft RJG, Scheper RJ (eds) Current topics in contact dermatitis. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 178–184
Pozzilli P, Gisella Cavallo M (2000) Oral insulin and the induction of tolerance in man: reality or fantasy? Diabetes Metab Res Rev 16:306–307
Weiner HL, Gonnella PA, Slavin A, Maron R (1997) Oral tolerance: cytokine milieu in the gut and modulation of tolerance by cytokines. Res Immunol 148:528–533
Rustemeyer T, de Groot J, von Blomberg BME, Frosch PJ, Scheper RJ (2001) Induction of tolerance and cross-tolerance to methacrylate contact sensitizers. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 176:195–202
Miller SD, Sy M-S, Claman HN (1977) The induction of hapten-specific T cell tolerance using hapten-modified lymphoid membranes. II. Relative roles of suppressor T cells and clone inhibition in the tolerant state. Eur J Immunol 7:165–170
Polak L (1980) Immunological aspects of contact sensitivity. An experimental study. Monogr Allergy 15:4–60
Weiner HL (1997) Oral tolerance: immune mechanisms and treatment of autoimmune diseases. Immunol Today 18:335–343
Weigle WO, Romball CG (1997) CD4+ T-cell subsets and cytokines involved in peripheral tolerance. Immunol Today 18:533–538
Zembala M, Ashershon GL (1973) Depression of T cell phenomenon of contact sensitivity by T cells from unresponsive mice. Nature 244:227–228
Boerrigter GH, Scheper RJ (1984) Local administration of the cytostatic drug 4-hydroperoxy-cyclophosphamde (4-HPCY) facilitates cell mediated immune reactions. Clin Exp Immunol 58:161–166
Boerrigter GH, de Groot J, Scheper RJ (1986) Intradermal administration of 4-hydoperoxy-cyclophosphamde during contact sensitization potentiates effector T cell responsiveness in draining lymph nodes. Immunopharmacology 1:13–20
Mokyr MB, Kalinichenko T, Gorelik L, Bluestone JA (1998) Realization of the therapeutic potential of CTLA-4 blockade in low-dose chemotherapy-treated tumor-bearing mice. Cancer Res 58:5301–5304
Knop J, Stremmer R, Neumann C, Dc Maeyer D, Macher E (1982) Interferon inhibits the suppressor T cell response of delayed-type hypersensitivity. Nature 296:775–776
Zhang ZY, Michael JG (1990) Orally inducible immune unresponsiveness is abrogated by IFN-gamma treatment. J Immunol 144:4163–4165
Claessen AME, von Blomberg BME, de Groot J, Wolvers DAE, Kraal G, Scheper RJ (1996) Reversal of mucosal tolerance by subcutaneous administration of interleukin-12 at the site of attempted sensitization. Immunology 88:363–367
Röcken M, Shevach EM (1996) Immune deviation — the third dimension of nondeletional T cell tolerance. Immunol Rev 149:175–194
Bridoux F, Badou A, Saoudi A, Bernard L, Druet E, Pasquier R, Druet P, Pelletier L (1997) Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta)-dependent inhibition of T helper cell 2 (Th2)-induced autoimmunity by self-major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II-specific, regulatory CD4+ T cell lines. J Exp Med 185:1769–1775
Hafler DA, Kent SC, Pietrusewicz MJ, Khoury SJ, Weiner HL, Fukaura H (1997) Oral administration of myelin induces antigen-specific TGF-beta 1 secreting T cells in patients with multiple sclerosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 835:120–131
Cavani A, Nasorri F, Ottaviani C, Sebastiani S, de Pita O, Girolomoni G (2003) Human CD25+ regulatory T cells maintain immune tolerance to nickel in healthy, nonallergic individuals. J Immunol 171:5760
Lonati A, Licenziati S, Marcelli M, Canaris D, Pasolini G, Caruso A, de Panfilis G (1998) Quantitative analysis “at the single cell level” of the novel CD28−CD11b− subpopulation of CD8+ T lymphocytes. ESDR meeting at Cologne
De Panfilis G (1998) CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocytes and the skin. Exp Dermatol 7:121–131
Kuchroo VK, Byrne MC, Atsumi Y, Greenfeld E, Connol JH, Whitters MJ, O’Hara RM, Collins M, Dorf ME (1991) T cell receptor alpha chain plays a critical role in antigenspecific suppressor cell function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:8700–8704
Kumar V, Sercarz E (1998) Induction or protection from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis depends on the cytokine secretion profile of TCR peptide-specific regulatory CD4 T cells. J Immunol 161:6585–6591
Kalinski P, Schuitemaker JH, Hilkens CM, Kapsenberg ML (1998) Prostaglandin E2 induces the final maturation of IL-12 deficient CD1a+CD83+ dendritic cells. J Immunol 161:2804–2809
Steinbrink K, Wolf M, Jonuleit H, Knop J, Enk AH (1997) Induction of tolerance by IL-10-treated dendritic cells. J Immunol 159:4772–4780
Steinbrink K, Jonuleit H, Muller G, Schuler G, Knop J, Enk AH (1999) Interleukin-10-treated human dendritic cells induce a melanoma-antigen-specific anergy in CD8(+) T cells resulting in a failure to lyse tumor cells. Blood 93:1634–1642
Taams LS, Boot EPJ, van Eden W, Wauben MHM (2000) ‘Anergic’ T cells modulate the T-cell activating capacity of antigen-presenting cells J Autoimmun 14:335–341
Taams LS, van Rensen AJML, Poelen MC, van Els CACM, Besseling AC, Wagenaar JPA, van Eden W, Wauben MHM (1998) Anergic T cells actively suppress T cell responses via the antigen presenting cell. Eur J Immunol 28:2902–2912
Strobel S, Mowat AM (1998) Immune responses to dietary antigens: oral tolerance. Immunol Today 19:173–181
Strober W, Kelsall B, Marth T (1998) Oral tolerance. J Clin Immunol 18:1–30
von Herrath MG (1997) Bystander suppression induced by oral tolerance. Res Immunol 148:541–554
Inobe J, Slavin AJ, Komagata Y, Chen Y, Liu L, Weiner HL (1998) IL-4 is a differentiation factor for transforming growth factor-beta secreting Th3 cells and oral administration of IL-4 enhances oral tolerance in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Eur J Immunol 28:2780–2790
Fowler E, Weiner HL (1997) Oral tolerance: elucidation of mechanisms and application to treatment of autoimmune diseases. Biopolymers 43:323–335
Van Hoogstraten IMW, von Blomberg BME, Boden D, Kraal G, Scheper RJ (1994) Non-sensitizing epicutaneous skin tests prevent subsequent induction of immune tolerance. J Invest Dermatol 102:80–83
Epstein WL (1987) The poison ivy picker of Pennypack Park: the continuing saga of poison ivy. J Invest Dermatol 88:7–9
Morris DL (1998) Intradermal testing and sublingual in desensitization for nickel. Cutis 61:129–132
Wendel GD, Stark BJ, Jamison RB, Molina RD, Sullivan TJ (1985) Penicillin allergy and desensitization in serious infections during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 312:1229–1232
Panzani RC, Schiavino D, Nucera E, Pellegrino S, Fais G, Schinco G, Patriarca G (1995) Oral hyposensitization to nickel allergy: preliminary clinical results. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 107:251–254
Troost RJ, Kozel MM, van Helden-Meeuwsen CG, van Joost T, Mulder PG, Benner R, Prens EP (1995) Hyposensitization in nickel allergic contact dermatitis: clinical and immunologic monitoring. J Am Acad Dermatol 32:576–583
Chase MW (1946) Inhibition of experimental drug allergy by prior feeding of the sensitizing agent. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 61:257–259
Polak L, Turk SL (1968) Studies on the effect of systemic administration of sensitizers in guinea pigs with contact sensitivity to inorganic metal compounds. I. The induction of immunological unresponsiveness in already sensitized animals. Clin Exp Immunol 3:245–251
Polak L, Rinck C (1978) Mechanism of desensitization in DNCH-contact sensitive guinea pigs. J Invest Dermatol 70:98–104
Gaspari AA, Jenkins MK, Katz SI (1988) Class II MCH-bearing keratinocytes induce antigen-specific unresponsiveness in hapten-specific TH1 clones. J Immunol 141:2216–2220
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2006 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rustemeyer, T., van Hoogstraten, I.M., von Blomberg, B.M.E., Scheper, R.J. (2006). Mechanisms in Allergic Contact Dermatitis. In: Frosch, P.J., Menné, T., Lepoittevin, JP. (eds) Contact Dermatitis. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-31301-X_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-31301-X_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-24471-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-31301-4
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)