Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) can be differentiated into specific neurons and brain organoids by adding induction factors and small molecules in vitro, which carry human genetic information and recapitulate the development process of human brain as well as physiological, pathological, and pharmacological characteristics. Hence, iPSC-derived neurons and organoids hold great promise for studying human brain development and related nervous system diseases in vitro, and provide a platform for drug screening. In this chapter, we summarize the development of the differentiation techniques for neurons and brain organoids from iPSCs, and their applications in studying brain disease, drug screening, and transplantation.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Almeida S et al (2012) Induced pluripotent stem cell models of progranulin-deficient frontotemporal dementia uncover specific reversible neuronal defects. Cell Rep 2(4):789–798
Ananiev G et al (2011) Isogenic pairs of wild type and mutant induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines from Rett syndrome patients as in vitro disease model. PloS One 6(9):e25255
Andersen J et al (2020) Generation of functional human 3D Cortico-motor Assembloids. Cell 183(7):1913–1929 e26
Avior Y, Sagi I, Benvenisty N (2016) Pluripotent stem cells in disease modelling and drug discovery. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 17(3):170–182
Bagley JA et al (2017) Fused cerebral organoids model interactions between brain regions. Nat Methods 14(7):743–751
Bamba Y et al (2016) In vitro characterization of neurite extension using induced pluripotent stem cells derived from lissencephaly patients with TUBA1A missense mutations. Mol Brain 9(1):70
Barker RA, Drouin-Ouellet J, Parmar M (2015) Cell-based therapies for Parkinson disease – past insights and future potential. Nat Rev Neurol 11(9):492–503
Barmada SJ et al (2014) Autophagy induction enhances TDP43 turnover and survival in neuronal ALS models. Nat Chem Biol 10(8):677–685
Benito-Kwiecinski S et al (2021) An early cell shape transition drives evolutionary expansion of the human forebrain. Cell 184(8):2084–2102.e19
Bidinosti M et al (2016) CLK2 inhibition ameliorates autistic features associated with SHANK3 deficiency. Science 351(6278):1199–1203
Birey F et al (2017) Assembly of functionally integrated human forebrain spheroids. Nature 545(7652):54–59
Birey F et al (2022) Dissecting the molecular basis of human interneuron migration in forebrain assembloids from Timothy syndrome. Cell Stem Cell 29(2):248–264.e7
Brennand KJ et al (2011) Modelling schizophrenia using human induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature 473(7346):221–225
Brennand K et al (2015) Phenotypic differences in hiPSC NPCs derived from patients with schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 20(3):361–368
Byers B et al (2011) SNCA triplication Parkinson's patient's iPSC-derived DA neurons accumulate α-synuclein and are susceptible to oxidative stress. PloS One 6(11):e26159
Cakir B et al (2019) Engineering of human brain organoids with a functional vascular-like system. Nat Methods 16(11):1169–1175
Cardoso T et al (2018) Target-specific forebrain projections and appropriate synaptic inputs of hESC-derived dopamine neurons grafted to the midbrain of Parkinsonian rats. J Comp Neurol 526(13):2133–2146
Chen H et al (2014a) Modeling ALS with iPSCs reveals that mutant SOD1 misregulates neurofilament balance in motor neurons. Cell Stem Cell 14(6):796–809
Chen HM et al (2014b) Transcripts involved in calcium signaling and telencephalic neuronal fate are altered in induced pluripotent stem cells from bipolar disorder patients. Transl Psychiatry 4(3):e375
Chen Y et al (2016) Chemical control of grafted human PSC-derived neurons in a mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Cell Stem Cell 18(6):817–826
Chen X et al (2021) Modeling sporadic Alzheimer's disease in human brain organoids under serum exposure. Adv Sci (Weinh) 8(18):e2101462
Cheng PH et al (2013) miR-196a ameliorates phenotypes of Huntington disease in cell, transgenic mouse, and induced pluripotent stem cell models. Am J Hum Genet 93(2):306–312
Chiaradia I, Lancaster MA (2020) Brain organoids for the study of human neurobiology at the interface of in vitro and in vivo. Nat Neurosci 23(12):1496–1508
Christian M et al (2010) Targeting DNA double-strand breaks with TAL effector nucleases. Genetics 186(2):757–761
Cong L et al (2013) Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/Cas systems. Science 339(6121):819–823
Cooper O et al (2012) Pharmacological rescue of mitochondrial deficits in iPSC-derived neural cells from patients with familial Parkinson's disease. Sci Transl Med 4(141):141ra90
Di Lullo E, Kriegstein AR (2017) The use of brain organoids to investigate neural development and disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 18(10):573–584
Dimos JT et al (2008) Induced pluripotent stem cells generated from patients with ALS can be differentiated into motor neurons. Science 321(5893):1218–1221
Djuric U et al (2015) MECP2e1 isoform mutation affects the form and function of neurons derived from Rett syndrome patient iPS cells. Neurobiol Dis 76:37–45
Doers ME et al (2014) iPSC-derived forebrain neurons from FXS individuals show defects in initial neurite outgrowth. Stem Cells Dev 23(15):1777–1787
Doncheva NT et al (2021) Human pathways in animal models: possibilities and limitations. Nucleic Acids Res 49(4):1859–1871
Dong X et al (2021) Human cerebral organoids establish subcortical projections in the mouse brain after transplantation. Mol Psychiatry 26(7):2964–2976
Ebert AD et al (2009) Induced pluripotent stem cells from a spinal muscular atrophy patient. Nature 457(7227):277–280
Egawa N et al (2012) Drug screening for ALS using patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells. Sci Transl Med 4(145):145ra104
Eichmüller OL et al (2022) Amplification of human interneuron progenitors promotes brain tumors and neurological defects. Science 375(6579):eabf5546
Eiraku M et al (2008) Self-organized formation of polarized cortical tissues from ESCs and its active manipulation by extrinsic signals. Cell Stem Cell 3(5):519–532
Eiraku M et al (2011) Self-organizing optic-cup morphogenesis in three-dimensional culture. Nature 472(7341):51–56
Emborg ME et al (2013) Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural cells survive and mature in the nonhuman primate brain. Cell Rep 3(3):646–650
Flandin P et al (2011) Lhx6 and Lhx8 coordinately induce neuronal expression of Shh that controls the generation of interneuron progenitors. Neuron 70(5):939–950
Giandomenico SL, Sutcliffe M, Lancaster MA (2021) Generation and long-term culture of advanced cerebral organoids for studying later stages of neural development. Nat Protoc 16(2):579–602
Griesi-Oliveira K et al (2015) Modeling non-syndromic autism and the impact of TRPC6 disruption in human neurons. Mol Psychiatry 20(11):1350–1365
Gunaseeli I et al (2010) Induced pluripotent stem cells as a model for accelerated patient- and disease-specific drug discovery. Curr Med Chem 17(8):759–766
Guo X et al (2013) Inhibition of mitochondrial fragmentation diminishes Huntington's disease-associated neurodegeneration. J Clin Invest 123(12):5371–5388
HD iPSC Consortium (2012) Induced pluripotent stem cells from patients with Huntington's disease show CAG-repeat-expansion-associated phenotypes. Cell Stem Cell 11(2):264–278
Hill RA (2012) Interaction of sex steroid hormones and brain-derived neurotrophic factor-tyrosine kinase B signalling: relevance to schizophrenia and depression. J Neuroendocrinol 24(12):1553–1561
Hockemeyer D, Jaenisch R (2016) Induced pluripotent stem cells meet genome editing. Cell Stem Cell 18(5):573–586
Hockemeyer D et al (2009) Efficient targeting of expressed and silent genes in human ESCs and iPSCs using zinc-finger nucleases. Nat Biotechnol 27(9):851–857
Hockemeyer D et al (2011) Genetic engineering of human pluripotent cells using TALE nucleases. Nat Biotechnol 29(8):731–734
Hu BY, Zhang SC (2009) Differentiation of spinal motor neurons from pluripotent human stem cells. Nat Protoc 4(9):1295–1304
Hu BY et al (2010) Neural differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells follows developmental principles but with variable potency. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107(9):4335–4340
Hu D et al (2021) Small-molecule suppression of calpastatin degradation reduces neuropathology in models of Huntington's disease. Nat Commun 12(1):5305
Huo HQ et al (2018) Modeling down syndrome with patient iPSCs reveals cellular and migration deficits of GABAergic neurons. Stem Cell Rep 10(4):1251–1266
Iakoucheva LM, Muotri AR, Sebat J (2019) Getting to the cores of autism. Cell 178(6):1287–1298
Israel MA et al (2012) Probing sporadic and familial Alzheimer's disease using induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature 482(7384):216–220
Jiang H et al (2012) Parkin controls dopamine utilization in human midbrain dopaminergic neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells. Nat Commun 3:668
Jin M et al (2022) Type-I-interferon signaling drives microglial dysfunction and senescence in human iPSC models of down syndrome and Alzheimer's disease. Cell Stem Cell 29(7):1135–1153.e8
Jo J et al (2021) Lewy body-like inclusions in human midbrain organoids carrying glucocerebrosidase and α-synuclein mutations. Ann Neurol 90(3):490–505
Kalia LV, Lang AE (2015) Parkinson's disease. Lancet 386(9996):896–912
Kang Y et al (2021) A human forebrain organoid model of fragile X syndrome exhibits altered neurogenesis and highlights new treatment strategies. Nat Neurosci 24(10):1377–1391
Karumbayaram S et al (2009) Directed differentiation of human-induced pluripotent stem cells generates active motor neurons. Stem Cells 27(4):806–811
Kelley KW, Pasca SP (2022) Human brain organogenesis: toward a cellular understanding of development and disease. Cell 185(1):42–61
Kikuchi T et al (2017) Human iPS cell-derived dopaminergic neurons function in a primate Parkinson’s disease model. Nature 548(7669):592–596
Kim KY, Hysolli E, Park IH (2011) Neuronal maturation defect in induced pluripotent stem cells from patients with Rett syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(34):14169–14174
Kirkeby A et al (2012) Generation of regionally specified neural progenitors and functional neurons from human embryonic stem cells under defined conditions. Cell Rep 1(6):703–714
Kondo T et al (2013) Modeling Alzheimer's disease with iPSCs reveals stress phenotypes associated with intracellular Aβ and differential drug responsiveness. Cell Stem Cell 12(4):487–496
Kumari D et al (2015) High-throughput screening to identify compounds that increase fragile X mental retardation protein expression in neural stem cells differentiated from fragile X syndrome patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells. Stem Cells Transl Med 4(7):800–808
Lancaster MA, Knoblich JA (2014) Generation of cerebral organoids from human pluripotent stem cells. Nat Protoc 9(10):2329–2340
Lancaster MA et al (2013) Cerebral organoids model human brain development and microcephaly. Nature 501(7467):373–379
Laursen TM (2011) Life expectancy among persons with schizophrenia or bipolar affective disorder. Schizophr Res 131(1–3):101–104
Lee G et al (2009) Modelling pathogenesis and treatment of familial dysautonomia using patient-specific iPSCs. Nature 461(7262):402–406
Lefrère J, Berche P (2010) Doctor Brown-Sequard’s therapy. In: Annales D’endocrinologie
Li XJ, Li S (2012) Influence of species differences on the neuropathology of transgenic Huntington's disease animal models. J Genet Genomics 39(6):239–245
Li XJ et al (2005) Specification of motoneurons from human embryonic stem cells. Nat Biotechnol 23(2):215–221
Li XJ et al (2008) Directed differentiation of ventral spinal progenitors and motor neurons from human embryonic stem cells by small molecules. Stem Cells 26(4):886–893
Lichtenstein P et al (2009) Common genetic determinants of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in Swedish families: a population-based study. Lancet 373(9659):234–239
Liu Y, Zhang SC (2010) Human stem cells as a model of motoneuron development and diseases. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1198:192–200
Liu Y et al (2013a) Directed differentiation of forebrain GABA interneurons from human pluripotent stem cells. Nat Protoc 8(9):1670–1679
Liu Y et al (2013b) Medial ganglionic eminence-like cells derived from human embryonic stem cells correct learning and memory deficits. Nat Biotechnol 31(5):440–447
Lu J et al (2013) Generation of integration-free and region-specific neural progenitors from primate fibroblasts. Cell Rep 3(5):1580–1591
Lu J et al (2016) Generation of serotonin neurons from human pluripotent stem cells. Nat Biotechnol 34(1):89–94
Ma L et al (2012) Human embryonic stem cell-derived GABA neurons correct locomotion deficits in quinolinic acid-lesioned mice. Cell Stem Cell 10(4):455–464
Maetzel D et al (2014) Genetic and chemical correction of cholesterol accumulation and impaired autophagy in hepatic and neural cells derived from Niemann-Pick type C patient-specific iPS cells. Stem Cell Rep 2(6):866–880
Mansour AA et al (2018) An in vivo model of functional and vascularized human brain organoids. Nat Biotechnol 36(5):432–441
Marchetto MC et al (2010) A model for neural development and treatment of Rett syndrome using human induced pluripotent stem cells. Cell 143(4):527–539
Mariani J et al (2012) Modeling human cortical development in vitro using induced pluripotent stem cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109(31):12770–12775
Maroof AM et al (2013) Directed differentiation and functional maturation of cortical interneurons from human embryonic stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 12(5):559–572
Martinez-Losa M et al (2018) Nav1. 1-overexpressing interneuron transplants restore brain rhythms and cognition in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Neuron 98(1):75–89. e5
Mertens J et al (2015) Differential responses to lithium in hyperexcitable neurons from patients with bipolar disorder. Nature 527(7576):95–99
Miyoshi G et al (2021) FoxG1 regulates the formation of cortical GABAergic circuit during an early postnatal critical period resulting in autism spectrum disorder-like phenotypes. Nat Commun 12(1):3773
Montine TJ et al (2012) National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association guidelines for the neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer's disease: a practical approach. Acta Neuropathol 123(1):1–11
Nicholas CR et al (2013) Functional maturation of hPSC-derived forebrain interneurons requires an extended timeline and mimics human neural development. Cell Stem Cell 12(5):573–586
Oksanen M et al (2017) PSEN1 mutant iPSC-derived model reveals severe astrocyte pathology in Alzheimer's disease. Stem Cell Rep 9(6):1885–1897
Paquet D et al (2016) Efficient introduction of specific homozygous and heterozygous mutations using CRISPR/Cas9. Nature 533(7601):125–129
Park IH et al (2008) Disease-specific induced pluripotent stem cells. Cell 134(5):877–886
Park B, Yoo KH, Kim C (2015) Hematopoietic stem cell expansion and generation: the ways to make a breakthrough. Blood Res 50(4):194
Paşca SP et al (2011) Using iPSC-derived neurons to uncover cellular phenotypes associated with Timothy syndrome. Nat Med 17(12):1657–1662
Perez-Pinera P et al (2013) RNA-guided gene activation by CRISPR-Cas9-based transcription factors. Nat Methods 10(10):973–976
Pinson A et al (2022) Human TKTL1 implies greater neurogenesis in frontal neocortex of modern humans than Neanderthals. Science 377(6611):eabl6422
Pollen AA et al (2019) Establishing cerebral organoids as models of human-specific brain evolution. Cell 176(4):743–756.e17
Prakash N et al (2006) A Wnt1-regulated genetic network controls the identity and fate of midbrain-dopaminergic progenitors in vivo. Development 133(1):89–98
Qian X et al (2016) Brain-region-specific organoids using mini-bioreactors for modeling ZIKV exposure. Cell 165(5):1238–1254
Qian X et al (2018) Generation of human brain region-specific organoids using a miniaturized spinning bioreactor. Nat Protoc 13(3):565–580
Raja WK et al (2016) Self-organizing 3D human neural tissue derived from induced pluripotent stem cells recapitulate Alzheimer's disease phenotypes. PloS One 11(9):e0161969
Rallu M et al (2002) Dorsoventral patterning is established in the telencephalon of mutants lacking both Gli3 and Hedgehog signaling. Development 129(21):4963–4974
Rash BG, Grove EA (2007) Patterning the dorsal telencephalon: a role for sonic hedgehog? J Neurosci 27(43):11595–11603
Real R et al (2018) In vivo modeling of human neuron dynamics and down syndrome. Science 362(6416)
Renton AE, Chiò A, Traynor BJ (2014) State of play in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis genetics. Nat Neurosci 17(1):17–23
Revah O et al (2022) Maturation and circuit integration of transplanted human cortical organoids. Nature 610(7931):319–326
Ross CA, Tabrizi SJ (2011) Huntington's disease: from molecular pathogenesis to clinical treatment. Lancet Neurol 10(1):83–98
Ryan SD et al (2013) Isogenic human iPSC Parkinson's model shows nitrosative stress-induced dysfunction in MEF2-PGC1α transcription. Cell 155(6):1351–1364
Salero E, Hatten ME (2007) Differentiation of ES cells into cerebellar neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(8):2997–3002
Sances S et al (2016) Modeling ALS with motor neurons derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells. Nat Neurosci 19(4):542–553
Shahsavani M et al (2018) An in vitro model of lissencephaly: expanding the role of DCX during neurogenesis. Mol Psychiatry 23(7):1674–1684
Shcheglovitov A et al (2013) SHANK3 and IGF1 restore synaptic deficits in neurons from 22q13 deletion syndrome patients. Nature 503(7475):267–271
Sheridan SD et al (2011) Epigenetic characterization of the FMR1 gene and aberrant neurodevelopment in human induced pluripotent stem cell models of fragile X syndrome. PloS One 6(10):e26203
Smith C et al (2014) Whole-genome sequencing analysis reveals high specificity of CRISPR/Cas9 and TALEN-based genome editing in human iPSCs. Cell Stem Cell 15(1):12–13
Smith M et al (2019) Organ donation after circulatory death: current status and future potential. Intensive Care Med 45(3):310–321
Snow JP et al (2020) Neuronal modeling of alternating hemiplegia of childhood reveals transcriptional compensation and replicates a trigger-induced phenotype. Neurobiol Dis 141:104881
Stern S et al (2018) Neurons derived from patients with bipolar disorder divide into intrinsically different sub-populations of neurons, predicting the patients' responsiveness to lithium. Mol Psychiatry 23(6):1453–1465
Sun XY et al (2022) Generation of vascularized brain organoids to study neurovascular interactions. elife 11:e76707
Takahashi K, Yamanaka S (2006) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 126(4):663–676
Takahashi K et al (2007) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors. Cell 131(5):861–872
Tanaka T et al (2009) In vitro pharmacologic testing using human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 385(4):497–502
Tang XY et al (2021) DSCAM/PAK1 pathway suppression reverses neurogenesis deficits in iPSC-derived cerebral organoids from patients with down syndrome. J Clin Invest 131(12)
Tang XY et al (2022) Human organoids in basic research and clinical applications. Signal Transduct Target Ther 7(1):168
Tao Y et al (2021) Autologous transplant therapy alleviates motor and depressive behaviors in parkinsonian monkeys. Nat Med 27(4):632–639
Telias M et al (2015) Functional deficiencies in fragile X neurons derived from human embryonic stem cells. J Neurosci 35(46):15295–15306
Thomson JA et al (1998) Embryonic stem cell lines derived from human blastocysts. Science 282(5391):1145–1147
Urbach A et al (2010) Differential modeling of fragile X syndrome by human embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 6(5):407–411
Vadodaria KC et al (2016) Generation of functional human serotonergic neurons from fibroblasts. Mol Psychiatry 21(1):49–61
Vadodaria KC et al (2019a) Altered serotonergic circuitry in SSRI-resistant major depressive disorder patient-derived neurons. Mol Psychiatry 24(6):808–818
Vadodaria KC et al (2019b) Serotonin-induced hyperactivity in SSRI-resistant major depressive disorder patient-derived neurons. Mol Psychiatry 24(6):795–807
Wang ZB, Zhang X, Li XJ (2013) Recapitulation of spinal motor neuron-specific disease phenotypes in a human cell model of spinal muscular atrophy. Cell Res 23(3):378–393
Wang Y-K et al (2018) Human clinical-grade parthenogenetic ESC-derived dopaminergic neurons recover locomotive defects of nonhuman primate models of Parkinson's disease. Stem Cell Rep 11(1):171–182
Wen Z et al (2014) Synaptic dysregulation in a human iPS cell model of mental disorders. Nature 515(7527):414–418
Wernig M et al (2008) Neurons derived from reprogrammed fibroblasts functionally integrate into the fetal brain and improve symptoms of rats with Parkinson's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(15):5856–5861
Williams EC et al (2014) Mutant astrocytes differentiated from Rett syndrome patients-specific iPSCs have adverse effects on wild-type neurons. Hum Mol Genet 23(11):2968–2980
Xiang Y et al (2019) hESC-derived thalamic organoids form reciprocal projections when fused with cortical organoids. Cell Stem Cell 24(3):487–497 e7
Xiang Y et al (2020) Dysregulation of BRD4 function underlies the functional abnormalities of MeCP2 mutant neurons. Mol Cell 79(1):84–98.e9
Xu M et al (2016) Identification of small-molecule inhibitors of Zika virus infection and induced neural cell death via a drug repurposing screen. Nat Med 22(10):1101–1107
Xu R et al (2019) OLIG2 drives abnormal neurodevelopmental phenotypes in human iPSC-based organoid and chimeric mouse models of down syndrome. Cell Stem Cell 24(6):908–926.e8
Xu L et al (2022) Abnormal mitochondria in down syndrome iPSC-derived GABAergic interneurons and organoids. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 1868(6):166388
Yagi T et al (2011) Modeling familial Alzheimer's disease with induced pluripotent stem cells. Hum Mol Genet 20(23):4530–4539
Yahata N et al (2011) Anti-Aβ drug screening platform using human iPS cell-derived neurons for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. PloS One 6(9):e25788
Yamanaka S (2008) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse fibroblasts by four transcription factors. Cell Prolif 41:51–56
Yan Y et al (2005) Directed differentiation of dopaminergic neuronal subtypes from human embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells 23(6):781–790
Yang D et al (2008) Human embryonic stem cell-derived dopaminergic neurons reverse functional deficit in parkinsonian rats. Stem Cells 26(1):55–63
Yu J et al (2007) Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells. Science 318(5858):1917–1920
Yuan F et al (2018) Induction of human somatostatin and parvalbumin neurons by expressing a single transcription factor LIM homeobox 6. eLife:7
Zhang BZ et al (2020) SARS-CoV-2 infects human neural progenitor cells and brain organoids. Cell Res 30(10):928–931
Zhao J et al (2020) APOE4 exacerbates synapse loss and neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease patient iPSC-derived cerebral organoids. Nat Commun 11(1):5540
Zhu W et al (2022) Dysfunction of vesicular storage in young-onset Parkinson’s patient-derived dopaminergic neurons and organoids revealed by single cell electrochemical cytometry. Chem Sci 13(21):6217–6223
Zou J et al (2009) Gene targeting of a disease-related gene in human induced pluripotent stem and embryonic stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 5(1):97–110
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Zhu, W., Xu, L., Li, X., Hu, H., Lou, S., Liu, Y. (2023). iPSCs-Derived Neurons and Brain Organoids from Patients. In: Kuehn, M.H., Zhu, W. (eds) Human iPSC-derived Disease Models for Drug Discovery. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol 281. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/164_2023_657
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/164_2023_657
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-42348-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-42349-9
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)