Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) are drugs that are not controlled by the United Nations international drug control conventions of 1961 and 1971 but that may pose similar threats to public health. Many of them are traded as “legal” replacements to controlled drugs such as cannabis, heroin, benzodiazepines, cocaine, amphetamines, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Driven by globalization, there has been a large increase in the availability and, subsequently, harms caused by these substances over the last decade in Europe. The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) is monitoring more than 670 NPS that have appeared on Europe’s drug market in the last 20 years, of which almost 90% have appeared in the last decade. While some recent policy responses have been successful in reducing availability and sales of these substances in some settings – such as “legal highs” and “research chemicals” sold openly in the high street and online – and there are signs that growth in the market is slowing, new challenges have emerged. This includes monitoring a growing number of highly potent substances – including 179 synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and 28 fentanils – that can pose a high risk of life-threatening poisoning to users and can cause explosive outbreaks. This chapter briefly traces the origins of NPS, provides an overview of the situation in Europe, and discusses the work of the EMCDDA as part of a legal framework of early warning, risk assessment, and control measures that allows the European Union to rapidly detect, assess, and respond to public health and social threats caused by these substances.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsAbbreviations
- α-Methylfentanyl:
-
N-[1-(1-Methyl-2-phenylethyl)-4-piperidinyl]-N-phenyl-propanamide
- Δ9-THC:
-
(6aR,10aR)-6,6,9-Trimethyl-3-pentyl-6a,7,8,10a-tetrahydro-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-1-ol (Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol)
- AB-CHMINACA:
-
N-[(2S)-1-Amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]-1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide
- Acetylfentanyl:
-
N-Phenyl-N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)-4-piperidinyl]-acetamide
- Acryloylfentanyl:
-
N-Phenyl-N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)piperidin-4-yl]prop-2-enamide (acrylfentanyl)
- ADB-CHMINACA:
-
N-[(2S)-1-Amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]-1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide
- Carfentanil:
-
Methyl 1-(2-phenylethyl)-4-[phenyl(propanoyl)amino]piperidine-4-carboxylate
- CUMYL-4CN-BINACA:
-
1-(4-Cyanobutyl)-N-(2-phenylpropan-2-yl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide
- Cyclopropylfentanyl:
-
N-Phenyl-N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)piperidin-4-yl]cyclopropanecarboxamide
- 4F-iBF:
-
N-(4-Fluorophenyl)-2-methyl-N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)piperidin-4-yl]propanamide (4′-fluoroisobutyrylfentanyl)
- 4-Fluorofentanyl:
-
N-[4-Fluoro-1-(2-phenylethyl)piperidin-4-yl]-N-phenylpropanamide
- 5F-MDMB-PINACA:
-
Methyl (2S)-2-{[1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indazole-3-carbonyl]amino}-3,3-dimethylbutanoate (5F-ADB)
- Fentanyl:
-
N-Phenyl-N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)-4-piperidinyl]-propanamide
- Furanylfentanyl:
-
N-Phenyl-N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)piperidin-4-yl]furan-2-carboxamide (2-furanylfentanyl)
- HU-210:
-
3-(1,1′-Dimethylheptyl)-6aR,7,10,10aR-tetrahydro-1-hydroxy-6,6-dimethyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-9-methanol
- JWH-018:
-
(1-Pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenyl-methanone
- LSD:
-
(8β)-N,N-diethyl-6-methyl-9,10-didehydroergoline-8-carboxamide (d-lysergic acid diethylamide)
- MDMA:
-
1-(2H-1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine)
- 3-Methylfentanyl:
-
N-[3-Methyl-1-(2-phenylethyl)piperidin-4-yl]-N-phenylpropanamide
- Methoxyacetylfentanyl:
-
2-Methoxy-N-phenyl-N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)piperidin-4-yl]acetamide
- MDMB-CHMICA:
-
Methyl (2S)-2-{[1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indole-3-carbonyl]amino}-3,3-dimethylbutanoate
- THF-F:
-
N-Phenyl-N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)piperidin-4-yl]oxolane-2-carboxamide (tetrahydrofuranylfentanyl)
References
96/750/JHA (1996) Joint Action of 17 December 1996 adopted by the Council on the basis of Article K.3 of the Treaty on European Union concerning the approximation of the laws and practices of the Member States of the European Union to combat drug addiction and to prevent and combat illegal drug trafficking. Off J Eur Union L342:6–8. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:31996F0750
97/396/JHA (1997) Joint Action of 16 June 1997 adopted by the Council on the basis of Article K.3 of the Treaty on European Union, concerning the information exchange, risk assessment and the control of new synthetic drugs. Off J Eur Union L167:1–3. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31997F0396
Abbate V, Kicman AT, Evans-Brown M, McVeigh J, Cowan DA, Wilson C, Coles SJ, Walker CJ (2015) Anabolic steroids detected in bodybuilding dietary supplements – a significant risk to public health. Drug Test Anal 7:609–618. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.1728
Adamowicz P (2016) Fatal intoxication with synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-CHMICA. Forensic Sci Int 261:e5–e10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.02.024
Anonymous (1953) Esters of morphine. Bull Narc 4:36–38 https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1953-01-01_2_page009.html
Auwärter V, Dresen S, Weinmann W, Muller M, Putz M, Ferreiros N (2009) ‘Spice’ and other herbal blends: harmless incense or cannabinoid designer drugs? J Mass Spectrom 44:832–837. https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.1558
Baird CR, Fox P, Colvin LA (2014) Gabapentinoid abuse in order to potentiate the effect of methadone: a survey among substance misusers. Eur Addict Res 20:115–118. https://doi.org/10.1159/000355268
Bakota EL, Samms WC, Gray TR, Oleske DA, Hines MO (2018) Case reports of fatalities involving tianeptine in the United States. J Anal Toxicol. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bky023
Banister SD, Longworth M, Kevin R, Sachdev S, Santiago M, Stuart J, Mack JB, Glass M, McGregor IS, Connor M, Kassiou M (2016) Pharmacology of valinate and tert-leucinate synthetic cannabinoids 5F-AMBICA, 5F-AMB, 5F-ADB, AMB-FUBINACA, MDMB-FUBINACA, MDMB-CHMICA, and their analogues. ACS Chem Neurosci 7:1241–1254. https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00137
Baum RM (1985) New variety of street drugs poses growing problem. Chem Eng News 63:7–16
Beck J, Rosenbaum M (1994) Pursuit of ecstasy: the MDMA experience. State University of New York Press, Albany
Berens AI, Voets AJ, Demedts P (1996) Illicit fentanyl in Europe. Lancet 347:1334–1335. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90981-2
Berridge V (2013) Demons: our changing attitudes to alcohol, tobacco, and drugs. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Berridge V, Edwards G (1981) Opium and the people: opiate use in nineteenth-century England. Allen Lane, Penguin Books Ltd., London
Blackman S, Bradley R (2017) From niche to stigma-Headshops to prison: exploring the rise and fall of synthetic cannabinoid use among young adults. Int J Drug Policy 40:70–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.10.015
Brandt S, King L, Evans-Brown M (2014) The new drug phenomenon. Drug Test Anal 6:587–597. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.1686
Brunn K (1975) Gentleman’s Club: international control of drugs and alcohol. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Cohen PA, Venhuis BJ, Brandt SD (2016) Advancing supplement science: challenges and solutions. Drug Test Anal 8(3–4):e1–e3. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.1953
Collin M (1997) The story of ecstasy culture and acid house. Serpent’s Tail, London
Convention on Psychotropic Substances (1971) http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/psychotropics.html. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
Cooper DA (1988) Future synthetic drugs of abuse. In: Castonguay RT (ed) In: Proceedings of the international symposium on the forensic aspects of controlled substances: March 28–April 1. Laboratory Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation, US Dept. of Justice, Washington, DC, pp 79–103
Cooper ZD (2016) Adverse effects of synthetic cannabinoids: management of acute toxicity and withdrawal. Curr Psychiatry Rep 18:52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-11016-10694-11921
Council Decision 2005/387/JHA of 10 May 2005 on the information exchange, risk-assessment and control of new psychoactive substances (2005) Off J Eur Union L127:32–37. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32005D0387
Courtwright DT (2002) Forces of habit drugs and the making of the modern world. Harvard University Press, Cambridge
Cox BM (2011) Pharmacology of opioid drugs. In: Pasternak G (ed) The opiate receptors. Springer, New York, pp 23–58
Dahan A, Sarton E, Teppema L, Olievier C, Nieuwenhuijs D, Matthes HW, Kieffer BL (2001) Anesthetic potency and influence of morphine and sevoflurane on respiration in mu-opioid receptor knockout mice. Anesthesiology 94:824–832 http://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1944782
Dahan A, Aarts L, Smith TW (2010) Incidence, reversal, and prevention of opioid-induced respiratory depression. Anesthesiology 112:226–238. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181c38c25
de Boer D, Goemans WP, Ghezavat VR, van Ooijen RD, Maes RA (2003) Seizure of illicitly produced Para-fluorofentanyl: quantitative analysis of the content of capsules and tablets. J Pharm Biomed Anal 31:557–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0731-7085(02)00684-2
Decision No 1082/2013/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2013 on serious cross-border threats to health and repealing Decision No 2119/98/EC (2013) Off J Eur Union L293:1–15. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/GA/ALL/?uri=celex:32013D1082
Dekker S (2014) Safety differently: human factors for a new era, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Dempsey SK, Poklis JL, Sweat K, Cumpston K, Wolf CE (2017) Acute toxicity from intravenous use of the tricyclic antidepressant tianeptine. J Anal Toxicol 41:547–550. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bkx034
Deprez EE, Hui L, Wills K (2018) Deadly Chinese fentanyl is creating a new era of drug kingpins. Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2018-05-22/deadly-chinese-fentanyl-is-creating-a-new-era-of-drug-kingpins. Accessed 11 June 2018
Dion M, AbdelMalik P, Mawudeku A (2015) Big data and the global public health intelligence network (GPHIN). Can Commun Dis Rep 41:209–214
Directive (EU) 2017/2103 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 November 2017 amending Council Framework Decision 2004/757/JHA in order to include new psychoactive substances in the definition of ‘drug’ and repealing Council Decision 2005/387/JHA (2017) Off J Eur Union L305:12–18. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32017L2103
Directive 2011/62/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2011 amending Directive 2001/83/EC on the Community code relating to medicinal products for human use, as regards the prevention of the entry into the legal supply chain of falsified medicinal products (2011) Off J Eur Union L174:74–87. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:32011L0062
Dobaja M, Grenc D, Kozelj G, Brvar M (2017) Occupational transdermal poisoning with synthetic cannabinoid cumyl-PINACA. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 55:193–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2016.1278224
Dyck L (2008) Psychedelic psychiatry. LSD from clinic to campus. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
Elliott SP, Hernandez Lopez E (2018) A series of deaths involving carfentanil in the UK and associated post-mortem blood concentrations. J Anal Toxicol. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bkx109
Ernst L, Brandhorst K, Papke U, Altrogge A, Zodel S, Langer N, Beuerle T (2017) Identification and quantification of synthetic cannabinoids in ‘spice-like’ herbal mixtures: update of the German situation in early 2017. Forensic Sci Int 277:51–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.05.019
Estievenart G (1995) Policies and strategies to combat drugs in Europe. The treaty on European Union: framework for a new European strategy to combat drugs? Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2007) Early-warning system on new psychoactive substances. Operating guidelines. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/08497900-eaab-45fb-b918-b1697f90e8b8/language-en. Accessed 11 June 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2009) Understanding the ‘Spice’ phenomenon. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/27063. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2010) Risk assessment of new psychoactive substances. Operating guidelines. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi:https://doi.org/10.2810/2428. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2014a) Report on the risk assessment of 4-methylamphetamine in the framework of the council decision on new psychoactive substances, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/86512. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2014b) Report on the risk assessment of 3,4-dichloro-N-{[1-(dimethylamino)cyclohexyl]methyl}benzamide (AH-7921) in the framework of the council decision on new psychoactive substances. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/5691. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2016a) EU drug markets report. In: Depth analysis. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/219411. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2016b) EMCDDA–Europol joint report on a new psychoactive substance: N-phenyl-N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)piperidin-4-yl] acetamide (acetylfentanyl). Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/890694. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2016c) Preventing opioid overdose deaths with take-home naloxone. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/357062. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2017a) Report on the risk assessment of N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylacrylamide (Acryloylfentanyl) in the framework of the council decision on new psychoactive substances. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/16112. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2017b) Synthetic cannabinoids in Europe. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/topics/pods/synthetic-cannabinoids_en. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2017c) Report on the risk assessment of methyl 2-[[1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indole-3- carbonyl]amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanoate (MDMB-CHMICA) in the framework of the council decision on new psychoactive substances. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/08132. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2017d) EMCDDA–Europol joint report on a new psychoactive substance: methyl 1-(2-phenylethyl)-4-phenyl(propanoyl)aminopiperidine-4-carboxylate (carfentanil): in accordance with article 5 of council decision 2005/387/JHA on the information exchange, risk assessment and control of new psychoactive substances. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/282222. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2018a) European drug report: trends and developments. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/800331. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2018b) Fentanils and synthetic cannabinoids: driving greater complexity into the drug situation. An update from the EU early warning system (June 2018). Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/603753. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2018c) Mission. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/about/mission. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2018d) Reitox network. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/about/partners/reitox-network. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2018e) Action on new drugs. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/activities/action-on-new-drugs. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and Eurojust (2016) New psychoactive substances in Europe: legislation and prosecution – current challenges and solutions. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi: https://doi.org/10.2810/777512. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
Evans-Brown M, Sedefov R (2017) New psychoactive substances: driving greater complexity into the drug problem. Addiction 112:36–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13528
Evans-Brown M, Dawson RT, Chandler M, McVeigh J (2009) Use of melanotan I and II in the general population. BMJ 338:b566. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b566
Evans-Brown M, Kimergård A, McVeigh J, Chandler M, Brandt SD (2014) Is the breast cancer drug tamoxifen being sold as a bodybuilding dietary supplement? Br Med J 348:g1476. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g1476
Faul M, Lurie P, Kinsman JM, Dailey MW, Crabaugh C, Sasser SM (2017) Multiple naloxone administrations among emergency medical service providers is increasing. Prehosp Emerg Care 21:411–419. https://doi.org/10.1080/10903127.2017.1315203
Ford LT, Berg JD (2018) Analytical evidence to show letters impregnated with novel psychoactive substances are a means of getting drugs to inmates within the UK prison service. Ann Clin Biochem. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004563218767462
Ford BM, Tai S, Fantegrossi WE, Prather PL (2017) Synthetic pot: not your grandfather’s marijuana. Trends Pharmacol Sci 38:257–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2016.12.003
Frinculescu A, Lyall CL, Ramsey J, Miserez B (2017) Variation in commercial smoking mixtures containing third-generation synthetic cannabinoids. Drug Test Anal 9:327–333. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.1975
Fritschi G, Klein B (1995) Zwischen- und nebenproduckte bei der illegalen herstellung von fentanyl und fluorofentanylen und die synthese hirer acetylhomologen. Arch Kriminol 196:149–155
Gaoni Y, Mechoulam R (1964) Isolation, structure, and partial synthesis of an active constituent of hashish. J Am Chem Soc 86:1646–1647. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja01062a046
Gladden RM, Martinez P, Seth P (2016) Fentanyl law enforcement submissions and increases in synthetic opioid-involved overdose deaths – 27 states, 2013–2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 65:837–843. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6533a2
Griffiths P, Evans-Brown M, Sedefov R (2013) Getting up to speed with the public health and regulatory challenges posed by new psychoactive substances in the information age. Addiction 108:1700–1703. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12287
Guerrieri D, Rapp E, Roman M, Druid H, Kronstrand R (2017a) Postmortem and toxicological findings in a series of furanylfentanyl-related deaths. J Anal Toxicol 41:242–249. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bkw129
Guerrieri D, Rapp E, Roman M, Thelander G, Kronstrand R (2017b) Acrylfentanyl: another new psychoactive drug with fatal consequences. Forensic Sci Int 277:e21–e29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.05.010
Häkkinen M, Vuori E, Kalso E, Gergov M, Ojanpera I (2014) Profiles of pregabalin and gabapentin abuse by postmortem toxicology. Forensic Sci Int 241:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.04.028
Halford B (2015) A glimpse inside the sophisticated world of synthetic cannabinoids. Chem Eng News. http://cen.acs.org/articles/93/web/2015/04/Glimpse-Inside-Sophisticated-World-Synthetic.html. Accessed 11 June 2018
Hartley DM, Nelson NP, Arthur RR, Barboza P, Collier N, Lightfoot N, Linge JP, van der Goot E, Mawudeku A, Madoff LC, Vaillant L, Walters R, Yangarber R, Mantero J, Corley CD, Brownstein JS (2013) An overview of internet biosurveillance. Clin Microbiol Infect 19:1006–1013. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-0691.12273
Helander A, Backberg M, Signell P, Beck O (2017) Intoxications involving acrylfentanyl and other novel designer fentanyls – results from the Swedish STRIDA project. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 55:589–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2017.1303141
Henderson GL (1988) Designer drugs: past history and future prospects. J Forensic Sci 33:569–575
Henderson GL (1991) Fentanyl-related deaths: demographics, circumstances, and toxicology of 112 cases. J Forensic Sci 36:422–433
Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Prisons (HMIP) (2015) Changing patterns of substance misuse in adult prisons and service responses. Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Prisons, London. https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmiprisons/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2015/12/Substance-misuse-web-2015.pdf. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
Herzberg D (2010) Happy pills in America: from Miltown to Prozac. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
Herzberg D (2012) Busted for blockbusters: “scrip mills”, quaaludes, and prescribing power in the 1970s. In: Greene J, Watkins E (eds) Prescribed: writing, filling, using, and abusing the prescription in modern America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 207–231
Hikin L, Smith PR, Ringland E, Hudson S, Morley SR (2018) Multiple fatalities in the North of England associated with synthetic fentanyl analogue exposure: detection and quantitation a case series from early 2017. Forensic Sci Int 282:179–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.11.036
Hill SL, Najafi J, Dunn M, Acheampong P, Kamour A, Grundlingh J, Blain PG, Thomas SH (2016) Clinical toxicity following analytically confirmed use of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist MDMB-CHMICA. A report from the identification of novel psychoActive substances (IONA) study. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 54:638–643. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2016.1190980
Horth RZ, Crouch B, Horowitz BZ, Prebish A, Slawson M, McNair J, Elsholz C, Gilley S, Robertson J, Risk I, Hill M, Fletcher L, Hou W, Peterson D, Adams K, Vitek D, Nakashima A, Dunn A (2018) Acute poisonings from a synthetic cannabinoid sold as cannabidiol – Utah, 2017–2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 67:587–588. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6720a5
Huestis MA, Gorelick DA, Heishman SJ, Preston KL, Nelson RA, Moolchan ET, Frank RA (2001) Blockade of effects of smoked marijuana by the CB1-selective cannabinoid receptor antagonist SR141716. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58:322–328. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.4.322
Jack H (2009) The story of spice. Financial times. https://www.ft.com/content/1721e2da-f8a0-11dd-aae8-000077b07658. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
Janssen PA (1982) Potent, new analgesics, tailor-made for different purposes. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 26:262–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-6576.1982.tb01765.x
Janssen PAJ, Van der Eycken CAM (1968) The chemical anatomy of potent morphine-like analgesics. In: Burger A (ed) Drugs affecting the central nervous system, vol 2. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 25–60
Kasper AM, Ridpath AD, Arnold JK, Chatham-Stephens K, Morrison M, Olayinka O, Parker C, Galli R, Cox R, Preacely N, Anderson J, Kyle PB, Gerona R, Martin C, Schier J, Wolkin A, Dobbs T (2015) Severe illness associated with reported use of synthetic cannabinoids – Mississippi, April 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 64:1121–1122. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6439a7
Kieffer BL (1999) Opioids: first lessons from knockout mice. Trends Pharmacol Sci 20:19–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-6147(98)01279-6
Kim HK, Nelson LS (2015) Reducing the harm of opioid overdose with the safe use of naloxone: a pharmacologic review. Expert Opin Drug Saf 14:1137–1146. https://doi.org/10.1517/14740338.2015.1037274
Klar SA, Brodkin E, Gibson E, Padhi S, Predy C, Green C, Lee V (2016) Furanyl-fentanyl overdose events caused by smoking contaminated crack cocaine – British Columbia, Canada, July 15–18, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 65:1015–1016. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6537a6
Kram TC, Cooper DA, Allen AC (1981) Behind the identification of China white. Anal Chem 53:1379A–1386A
Kronstrand R, Druid H, Holmgren P, Rajs J (1997) A cluster of fentanyl-related deaths among drug addicts in Sweden. Forensic Sci Int 88:185–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0379-0738(97)00068-6
Langer N, Lindigkeit R, Schiebel HM, Ernst L, Beuerle T (2014) Identification and quantification of synthetic cannabinoids in ‘spice-like’ herbal mixtures: a snapshot of the German situation in the autumn of 2012. Drug Test Anal 6:59–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.1499
Langer N, Lindigkeit R, Schiebel HM, Papke U, Ernst L, Beuerle T (2016) Identification and quantification of synthetic cannabinoids in "spice-like" herbal mixtures: update of the German situation for the spring of 2016. Forensic Sci Int 269:31–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.10.023
Levinson M (2016) The box: how the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger. In: Princeton University Press, Princeton
Linge JP, Mantero J, Fuart F, Belyaeva J, Atkinson M, van der Goot E (2012) Tracking media reports on the Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O104: H4 outbreak in Germany. In: Kostkova P, Szomszor M, Fowler D (eds) Electronic healthcare. Springer, Berlin, pp 178–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-29262-0_26
Macfarlane V, Christie G (2015) Synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal: a new demand on detoxification services. Drug Alcohol Rev 34:147–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.12225
Macleod DB, Habib AS, Ikeda K, Spyker DA, Cassella JV, Ho KY, Gan TJ (2012) Inhaled fentanyl aerosol in healthy volunteers: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Anesth Analg 115:1071–1077. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0b013e3182691898
Mantero J, Szegedi E, Payne Hallstrom L, Lenglet A, Depoortere E, Kaic B, Blumberg L, Linge JP, Coulombier D (2014) Enhanced epidemic intelligence using a web-based screening system during the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. Euro Surveill 19(18):20796 http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=20796
Marraffa JM, Stork CM, Hoffman RS, Su MK (2018) Poison control center experience with tianeptine: an unregulated pharmaceutical product with potential for abuse. Clin Toxicol (Phila):1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2018.1476694
Martin J, Cunliffe J, Décary-Hétu D, Aldridge J (2018) Effect of restricting the legal supply of prescription opioids on buying through online illicit marketplaces: interrupted time series analysis. BMJ 361:k2270. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2270
McAllister WB (1999) Drug diplomacy in the twentieth century: an international history. Routledge, Abingdon
McNamara S, Stokes S, Kilduff R, Shine A (2015) Pregabalin abuse amongst opioid substitution treatment patients. Ir Med J 108:309–310
Meyers FH, Rose AJ, Smith DE (1968) Incidents involving the Haight-Ashbury population and some uncommonly used drugs. J Psychedelic Drugs 1:139–146
Miller RJ (2014) Drugged: the science and culture behind psychotropic drugs. University Press, Oxford
Moosmann B, Angerer V, Auwärter V (2015) Inhomogeneities in herbal mixtures: a serious risk for consumers. Forensic Toxicol 33:54–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11419-014-0247-4
Moritz E, Austin C, Wahl M, DesLauriers C, Navon L, Walblay K, Hendrickson M, Phillips A, Kerins J, Pennington AF, Lavery AM, El Zahran T, Kauerauf J, Yip L, Thomas J, Layden J (2018) Notes from the field: outbreak of severe illness linked to the vitamin K antagonist brodifacoum and use of synthetic cannabinoids – Illinois, March–April 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 67:607–608. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6721a4
Morris H (2012) Criminal chlorination. An interview with a clandestine chemist. Vice. http://www.vice.com/read/criminal-chlorination-0000350-v19n9. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
Morris H, Wallach J (2014) From PCP to MXE: a comprehensive review of the non-medical use of dissociative drugs. Drug Test Anal 6:614–632
Musto DF (1973) American disease: origins of narcotic control. Yale University Press, New York
National Crime Agency (2018) Organised crime group mixed potentially lethal drug fentanyl and posted it around the world. http://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/index.php/news-media/nca-news/1367-organised-crime-group-mixed-potentially-lethal-drug-fentanyl-and-posted-it-around-the-world. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
New York Times (1968) Synthetic marijuana being banned by U.S. New York Times, New York
O’Donnell JK, Gladden RM, Seth P (2017) Trends in deaths involving heroin and synthetic opioids excluding methadone, and law enforcement drug product reports, by census region – United States, 2006–2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 66:897–903. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6634a2
Ojanperä I, Gergov M, Rasanen I, Lunetta P, Toivonen S, Tiainen E, Vuori E (2006) Blood levels of 3-methylfentanyl in 3 fatal poisoning cases. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 27:328–331. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.paf.0000188097.78132.e5
Ojanperä I, Gergov M, Liiv M, Riikoja A, Vuori E (2008) An epidemic of fatal 3-methylfentanyl poisoning in Estonia. Int J Legal Med 122:395–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-008-0230-x
Olcott A (2012) Open source intelligence in a networked world. Continuum, London
Owen DR, Wood DM, Archer JR, Dargan PI (2016) Phenibut (4-amino-3-phenyl-butyric acid): availability, prevalence of use, desired effects and acute toxicity. Drug Alcohol Rev 35:591–596. https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.12356
Pap C (2016) ADB-Fubinaca in the real world: a case series of 15 poisonings. 36th international congress of the European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists (EAPCCT) 24–27 May 2016, Madrid, Spain. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 54:384. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2016.1165952
Pap C (2018) 5F-MDMB-PINACA on the streets: case series of 17 poisonings. 38th international congress of the European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists (EAPCCT) 22–25 May 2018, Bucharest, Romania. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 56:51. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2018.1457818
Passie T, Benzenhofer U (2016) The history of MDMA as an underground drug in the United States, 1960–1979. J Psychoactive Drugs 48:67–75
Passie T, Benzenhofer U (2018) MDA, MDMA, and other “mescaline-like” substances in the US military’s search for a truth drug (1940s to 1960s). Drug Test Anal 10:72–80
Pasternak GW, Pan YX (2013) Mu opioids and their receptors: evolution of a concept. Pharmacol Rev 65:1257–1317. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.112.007138
Pattinson KT (2008) Opioids and the control of respiration. Br J Anaesth 100:747–758. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aen094
Peace MR, Krakowiak RI, Wolf CE, Poklis A, Poklis JL (2017) Identification of MDMB-FUBINACA in commercially available e-liquid formulations sold for use in electronic cigarettes. Forensic Sci Int 271:92–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.12.031
Pertwee RG (2005) The therapeutic potential of drugs that target cannabinoid receptors or modulate the tissue levels or actions of endocannabinoids. AAPS J 7:E625–E654. https://doi.org/10.1208/aapsj070364
Pertwee RG (2015) Endocannabinoids. In: Handbook of experimental pharmacology. Springer, Cham
Pertwee RG, Cascio MG (2014) Known pharmacological actions of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and four other chemical constituents of cannabis that activate cannabinoid receptors. In: Pertwee R (ed) Handbook of Cannabis. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 115–136
Poortman-van der Meer AJ, Huizer H (1996) First encounter with p-fluorofentanyl in the Netherlands. Toxichem Krimtech 63:7–14
Proposal for a Council Decision on the information exchange, risk-assessment and the control on new narcotic drugs and new synthetic drugs 2003/0215 (CNS) (2003) http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52003PC0560. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
Quintana P, Ventura M, Grifell M, Palma A, Galindo L, Fornís I, Gil C, Carbón X, Caudevilla F, Farré M, Torrens M (2017) The hidden web and the fentanyl problem: detection of ocfentanil as an adulterant in heroin. Int J Drug Policy 40:78–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.10.006
Ralphs R, Williams L, Askew R, Norton A (2017) Adding spice to the porridge: the development of a synthetic cannabinoid market in an English prison. Int J Drug Policy 40:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.10.003
Rasmussen N (2008a) America's first amphetamine epidemic 1929-1971: a quantitative and qualitative retrospective with implications for the present. Am J Public Health 98:974–985. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.110593
Rasmussen N (2008b) On speed. From Benzedrine to Adderall. NYU Press, New York
Rasmussen N (2012) Goofball panic. Barbiturates, “dangerous” and addictive drugs, and the regulation of medicine in postwar America. In: Greene J, Watkins E (eds) Prescribed: writing, filling, using, and abusing the prescription in modern America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 23–45
Reggio PH (ed) (2009) The cannabinoids receptors. Humana Press, New York
Regulation (EC) No 1920/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (recast) (2006) Off J Eur Union L376:1–13. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:32006R1920
Regulation (EU) 2017/2101 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 November 2017 amending Regulation (EC) No 1920/2006 as regards information exchange on, and an early warning system and risk assessment procedure for, new psychoactive substances (2017) Off J Eur Union L305:1–7. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32017R2101
Reynolds S (1999) Generation ecstasy: into the world of techno and rave culture. Routledge, New York
Richards WA (2016) Secret knowledge. Psychedelics and religious experiences. Columbia University Press, New York
Romberg R, Sarton E, Teppema L, Matthes HW, Kieffer BL, Dahan A (2003) Comparison of morphine-6-glucuronide and morphine on respiratory depressant and antinociceptive responses in wild type and mu-opioid receptor deficient mice. Br J Anaesth 91:862–870. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aeg279
Samuels BA, Nautiyal KM, Kruegel AC, Levinstein MR, Magalong VM, Gassaway MM, Grinnell SG, Han J, Ansonoff MA, Pintar JE, Javitch JA, Sames D, Hen R (2017) The behavioral effects of the antidepressant tianeptine require the mu-opioid receptor. Neuropsychopharmacology 42:2052–2063. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.60
San Francisco Department of Public Health (SFDPH) (2015) Severe opioid overdoses in San Francisco caused by fentanyl-containing “Xanax” pill. http://www.sfcdcp.org/document.html?id=1005. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
Savulescu J, Meulen RT, Kahane G (eds) (2011) Enhancing human capacities. Wiley, Chichester
Schäffer M, Gröger T, Pütz M, Zimmermann R (2013) Assessment of the presence of damiana in herbal blends of forensic interest based on comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography. Forensic Toxicol 31:251–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11419-013-0186-5
Schäper J (2016) Wirkstoffgehalte und inhomogene Verteilung des Wirkstoffs MDMB-CHMICA in Kräutermischungen. Toxichem Krimtech 83:112–114
Schivelbusch W (1993) Tastes of paradise. A social history of spices, stimulants, and intoxicants. Vintage Books, New York
Schumann H, Erickson T, Thompson TM, Zautcke JL, Denton JS (2008) Fentanyl epidemic in Chicago, Illinois and surrounding Cook County. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 46:501–506. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650701877374
Shevyrin V, Melkozerov V, Nevero A, Eltsov O, Shafran Y, Morzherin Y, Lebedev AT (2015) Identification and analytical characteristics of synthetic cannabinoids with an indazole-3-carboxamide structure bearing a N-1-methoxycarbonylalkyl group. Anal Bioanal Chem 407:6301–6315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-015-8612-7
Shulgin AT (1975) Drugs of abuse in the future. Clin Tox (Phila) 8:405–456
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961 as amended by the 1972 Protocol (1961) https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/single-convention.html. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
Smil V (2010) Prime movers of globalization. The history and impact of diesel engines and gas turbines. MIT Press, Cambridge
Sneader W (2005) Drug discovery: a history. Wiley, Chichester. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470015535
Södertörns Tingsrätt (2018) Två bröder döms för åtta fall av grovt vållande till annans död för försäljning av fentanylanaloger på internet. http://www.sodertornstingsratt.domstol.se/Om-tingsratten/Nyheter-och-pressmeddelanden/Tva-broder-doms-for-atta-fall-av-grovt-vallande-till-annans-dod-for-forsaljning-av-fentanylanaloger-pa-internet/. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
Somerville NJ, O’Donnell J, Gladden RM, Zibbell JE, Green TC, Younkin M, Ruiz S, Babakhanlou-Chase H, Chan M, Callis BP, Kuramoto-Crawford J, Nields HM, Walley AY (2017) Characteristics of fentanyl overdose – Massachusetts, 2014–2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 66:382–386. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6614a2
Sorokin VI (1994) Clandestine synthesis of 3-methylfentanyl. J Clan Lab Invest Chem Assoc 4:28–29
Sorokin VI, Semkin EP, Savilov AP (1994) Expert examination of 3-methylfentanyl. Microgram 27:221–226
Stearns EL (2011) Electronic value exchange. Origins of the VISA electronic payment system. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84996-139-4
Sumnall H (2016) Epidemiology of use of novel psychoactive substances. In: von Heyden M, Jungaberle H, Majić T (eds) Handbuch psychoaktive substanzen. Springer, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55214-4_11-1
Sumnall HR, Evans-Brown M, McVeigh J (2011) Social, policy, and public health perspectives on new psychoactive substances. Drug Test Anal 3:515–523. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.310
Sutter ME, Gerona RR, Davis MT, Roche BM, Colby DK, Chenoweth JA, Adams AJ, Owen KP, Ford JB, Black HB, Albertson TE (2017) Fatal fentanyl: one pill can kill. Acad Emerg Med 24:106–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/acem.13034
Tai S, Fantegrossi WE (2017) Pharmacological and toxicological effects of synthetic cannabinoids and their metabolites. In: Baumann MH, Glennon RA, Wiley JL (eds) Neuropharmacology of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): the science behind the headlines. Springer, Cham, pp 249–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_60
Tait RJ, Caldicott D, Mountain D, Hill SL, Lenton S (2016) A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 54:1–13. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2015.1110590
Tapp L, Ramsey JG, Wen A, Gerona R (2017) Synthetic cannabinoid and mitragynine exposure of law enforcement agents during the raid of an illegal laboratory – Nevada, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 66:1291–1294. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6647a3
Tomassoni AJ, Hawk KF, Jubanyik K, Nogee DP, Durant T, Lynch KL, Patel R, Dinh D, Ulrich A, D’Onofrio G (2017) Multiple fentanyl overdoses – new haven, Connecticut, June 23, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 66(4):107–111. https://doi.org/10.15585/mm6604a4
Tone A (2008) The age of anxiety: a history of America’s turbulent affair with tranquilizers. Basic Books, New York
Trecki J, Gerona RR, Schwartz MD (2015) Synthetic cannabinoid-related illnesses and deaths. N Engl J Med 373:103–107. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1505328
Uddayasankar U, Lee C, Oleschuk C, Eschun G, Ariano RE (2018) The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of carfentanil after recreational exposure: a case report. Pharmacotherapy 38(6):e41–e45. https://doi.org/10.1002/phar.2117
Ujváry I, Jorge R, Christie R, Le Ruez T, Danielsson HV, Kronstrand R, Elliott S, Gallegos A, Sedefov R, Evans-Brown M (2017) Acryloylfentanyl, a recently emerged new psychoactive substance: a comprehensive review. Forensic Toxicol 35:232–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11419-017-0367-8
United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US CDC) (2015) Increases in fentanyl drug confiscations and fentanyl-related overdose fatalities. CDCHAN-00384. https://emergency.cdc.gov/han/han00384.asp. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US CDC) (2018) Outbreak of life-threatening coagulopathy associated with synthetic cannabinoids use. CDCHAN-00410. https://emergency.cdc.gov/han/han00410.asp. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
United States Department of Justice (US DOJ) (2018) Schedules of controlled substances: temporary placement of fentanyl-related substances in schedule I. Fed Regist 83:5188–5192. https://www.federalregister.gov/d/2018-02319. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
United States InterAgency Board for Equipment Standardization and Interoperability (US IABESI) (2017) Recommendations on selection and use of personal protective equipment and decontamination products for first responders against exposure hazards to synthetic opioids, including fentanyl and fentanyl analogues. https://www.interagencyboard.org/sites/default/files/publications/IAB First Responder PPE and Decontamination Recommendations for Fentanyl.pdf. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
United States White House National Security Council (US WHNSC) (2017) Fentanyl safety recommendations for first responders. https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/whitehouse.gov/files/images/Final%20STANDARD%20size%20of%20Fentanyl%20Safety%20Recommendations%20for%20First%20Respond….pdf. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
User Voice (2016) Spice: the bird killer – what prisoners think about the use of spice and other legal highs in prison. http://www.uservoice.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/User-Voice-Spice-The-Bird-Killer-Report-Low-Res.pdf. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
White JM, Irvine RJ (1999) Mechanisms of fatal opioid overdose. Addiction 94:961–972. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1999.9479612.x
Wiley JL, Marusich JA, Thomas BF (2017) Combination chemistry: structure–activity relationships of novel psychoactive cannabinoids. In: Baumann MH, Glennon RA, Wiley JL (eds) Neuropharmacology of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): the science behind the headlines. Springer, Cham, pp 231–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_17
Winstock AR, Barratt MJ (2013) The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products. Hum Psychopharmacol 28:390–393. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2292
World Health Organization (WHO) (2015) International health regulations (2005) and chemical events. World Health Organization, Geneva
World Health Organization (WHO) (2018) International health regulations. http://www.who.int/topics/international_health_regulations/en/. Accessed 11 Jun 2018
Yeter O (2017) Identification of the synthetic cannabinoid 1-(4-cyanobutyl)-N-(2-phenylpropan-2-yl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (CUMYL-4CN-BINACA) in plant material and quantification in post-mortem blood samples. J Anal Toxicol 41:720–728. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bkx061
Zaurova M, Hoffman RS, Vlahov D, Manini AF (2016) Clinical effects of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists compared with marijuana in emergency department patients with acute drug overdose. J Med Toxicol 12:335–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0558-4
Acknowledgments
Parts of this chapter have been previously published in an EMCDDA report entitled “Fentanils and Synthetic Cannabinoids: Driving Greater Complexity into the Drug Situation – An Update from the EU Early Warning System (June 2018)” as well as a chapter entitled “Responding to New Psychoactive Substances in the European Union: Early Warning, Risk Assessment, and Control Measures” published in the book Chemical Health Threats: Assessing and Alerting, published by the Royal Chemistry Society, 2018 (ISBN: 978-1-78262-071-6).
The authors would like to extend their sincere thanks and appreciation to the EWS correspondents of the Reitox national focal points and experts from their national early warning system networks; the Europol national units and Europol Project Synergy; Dr. István Ujváry, iKem BT, Budapest, Hungary; Dr. Robert Kronstrand, National Board of Forensic Medicine (RMV), Sweden; Dr. Simon Elliott, Alere Forensics, Malvern, United Kingdom; Dr. Simon Brandt, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom; Dr. Jan Schäper, Bayerisches Landeskriminalamt, Munich, Germany; Dr. Roland Archer, States Analyst, States of Guernsey; Prof. Anders Helander, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Luxembourg Customs; Slovenian National Forensic Laboratory (Police); Norwegian National Criminal Investigation Service (Kripos); Central Customs and Tax Laboratory, Poland; Swedish Police; Dr. Rachel Christie, Sofía Sola, Dr. Ana Gallegos, Anabela Almeida, Joanna de Morais, Dr. Rita Jorge, and Paulete Duque at the EMCDDA; and Lindsey Evans-Brown for proofreading the chapter.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Evans-Brown, M., Sedefov, R. (2018). Responding to New Psychoactive Substances in the European Union: Early Warning, Risk Assessment, and Control Measures. In: Maurer, H., Brandt, S. (eds) New Psychoactive Substances . Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol 252. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/164_2018_160
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/164_2018_160
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-10560-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-10561-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)