Discovery and Roles of 2′,3′-cAMP in Biological Systems

Abstract

In 2009, investigators using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to measure, by selected reaction monitoring, 3′,5′-cAMP in the renal venous perfusate from isolated, perfused kidneys detected a large signal at the same m/z transition (330 → 136) as 3′,5′-cAMP but at a different retention time. Follow-up experiments demonstrated that this signal was due to a positional isomer of 3′,5′-cAMP, namely, 2′,3′-cAMP. Soon thereafter, investigative teams reported the detection of 2′,3′-cAMP and other 2′,3′-cNMPs (2′,3′-cGMP, 2′,3′-cCMP, and 2′,3′-cUMP) in biological systems ranging from bacteria to plants to animals to humans. Injury appears to be the major stimulus for the release of these unique noncanonical cNMPs, which likely are formed by the breakdown of RNA. In mammalian cells in culture, in intact rat and mouse kidneys, and in mouse brains in vivo, 2′,3′-cAMP is metabolized to 2′-AMP and 3′-AMP; and these AMPs are subsequently converted to adenosine. In rat and mouse kidneys and mouse brains, injury releases 2′,3′-cAMP, 2′-AMP, and 3′-AMP into the extracellular compartment; and in humans, traumatic brain injury is associated with large increases in 2′,3′-cAMP, 2′-AMP, 3′-AMP, and adenosine in the cerebrospinal fluid. These findings motivate the extracellular 2′,3′-cAMP-adenosine pathway hypothesis: intracellular production of 2′,3′-cAMP → export of 2′,3′-cAMP → extracellular metabolism of 2′,3′-cAMP to 2′-AMP and 3′-AMP → extracellular metabolism of 2′-AMP and 3′-AMP to adenosine. Since 2′,3′-cAMP has been shown to activate mitochondrial permeability transition pores (mPTPs) leading to apoptosis and necrosis and since adenosine is generally tissue protective, the extracellular 2′,3′-cAMP-adenosine pathway may be a protective mechanism [i.e., removes 2′,3′-cAMP (an intracellular toxin) and forms adenosine (a tissue protectant)]. This appears to be the case in the brain where deficiency in CNPase (the enzyme that metabolizes 2′,3′-cAMP to 2-AMP) leads to increased susceptibility to brain injury and neurological diseases. Surprisingly, CNPase deficiency in the kidney actually protects against acute kidney injury, perhaps by preventing the formation of 2′-AMP (which turns out to be a renal vasoconstrictor) and by augmenting the mitophagy of damaged mitochondria. With regard to 2′,3′-cNMPs and their downstream metabolites, there is no doubt much more to be discovered.