Abstract
Opening and closing of voltage-gated cation channels allows the regulated flow of cations such as Na+, K+, and Ca2+ across cell membranes, which steers essential physiological processes including shaping of action potentials and triggering Ca2+-dependent processes. Classical textbooks describe the voltage-gated cation channels as membrane proteins with a single, central aqueous pore. In recent years, however, evidence has accumulated for the existence of additional ion permeation pathways in this group of cation channels, distinct from the central pore, which here we collectively name non-canonical pores. Whereas the first non-canonical pores were unveiled only after making specific point mutations in the voltage-sensor region of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels, recent evidence indicates that they may also be functional in non-mutated channels. Moreover, several channelopathies have been linked to mutations that cause the appearance of a non-canonical ion permeation pathway as a new pathological mechanism. This review provides an integrated overview of the biophysical properties of non-canonical pores described in voltage-dependent cation channels (KV, NaV, Cav, Hv1, and TRPM3) and of the (patho)physiological impact of opening of such pores.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ahern CA, Horn R (2005) Focused electric field across the voltage sensor of potassium channels. Neuron 48(1):25–29. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.08.020
Berger TK, Isacoff EY (2011) The pore of the voltage-gated proton channel. Neuron 72(6):991–1000. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.11.014
Bezanilla F (2000) The voltage sensor in voltage-dependent ion channels. Physiol Rev 80(2):555–592
Bezanilla F (2002) Perspective – voltage sensor movements. J Gen Physiol 120(4):465–473. doi:10.1085/jgp.20028660
Bezanilla F (2008) How membrane proteins sense voltage. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 9(4):323–332. doi:10.1038/nrm2376
Cannon SC (2010) Voltage-sensor mutations in channelopathies of skeletal muscle. J Physiol 588(Pt 11):1887–1895. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2010.186874
Capasso M, Bhamrah MK, Henley T, Boyd RS, Langlais C, Cain K, Dinsdale D, Pulford K, Khan M, Musset B, Cherny VV, Morgan D, Gascoyne RD, Vigorito E, DeCoursey TE, MacLennan IC, Dyer MJ (2010) HVCN1 modulates BCR signal strength via regulation of BCR-dependent generation of reactive oxygen species. Nat Immunol 11(3):265–272. doi:10.1038/ni.1843
Catterall WA (1986) Voltage-dependent gating of sodium channels: correlating structure and function. Trends Neurosci 9:7–10. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(86)90004-4
Catterall WA (2010) Ion channel voltage sensors: structure, function, and pathophysiology. Neuron 67(6):915–928. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.021
Catterall WA, Goldin AL, Waxman SG (2005a) International Union of Pharmacology. XLVII Nomenclature and structure-function relationships of voltage-gated sodium channels. Pharmacol Rev 57(4):397–409. doi:10.1124/pr.57.4.4
Catterall WA, Perez-Reyes E, Snutch TP, Striessnig J (2005b) International Union of Pharmacology. XLVIII Nomenclature and structure-function relationships of voltage-gated calcium channels. Pharmacol Rev 57(4):411–425. doi:10.1124/pr.57.4.5
Cha A, Bezanilla F (1997) Characterizing voltage-dependent conformational changes in the Shaker K+ channel with fluorescence. Neuron 19(5):1127–1140. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80403-1
Chanda B, Bezanilla F (2002) Tracking voltage-dependent conformational changes in skeletal muscle sodium channel during activation. J Gen Physiol 120(5):629–645
Cherny VV, Murphy R, Sokolov V, Levis RA, DeCoursey TE (2003) Properties of single voltage-gated proton channels in human eosinophils estimated by noise analysis and by direct measurement. J Gen Physiol 121(6):615–628. doi:10.1085/jgp.200308813
Chinnery PF, Walls TJ, Hanna MG, Bates D, Fawcett PR (2002) Normokalemic periodic paralysis revisited: does it exist? Ann Neurol 52(2):251–252. doi:10.1002/ana.10257
El Chemaly A, Okochi Y, Sasaki M, Arnaudeau S, Okamura Y, Demaurex N (2010) VSOP/Hv1 proton channels sustain calcium entry, neutrophil migration, and superoxide production by limiting cell depolarization and acidification. J Exp Med 207(1):129–139. doi:10.1084/jem.20091837
Fan C, Lehmann-Horn F, Weber MA, Bednarz M, Groome JR, Jonsson MK, Jurkat-Rott K (2013) Transient compartment-like syndrome and normokalaemic periodic paralysis due to a Ca(v)1.1 mutation. Brain 136(Pt 12):3775–3786. doi:10.1093/brain/awt300
Fischer H, Widdicombe JH, Illek B (2002) Acid secretion and proton conductance in human airway epithelium. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 282(4):C736–C743. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00369.2001
Francis DG, Rybalchenko V, Struyk A, Cannon SC (2011) Leaky sodium channels from voltage sensor mutations in periodic paralysis, but not paramyotonia. Neurology 76(19):1635–1641. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e318219fb57
Gamal El-Din TM, Heldstab H, Lehmann C, Greeff NG (2010) Double gaps along Shaker S4 demonstrate omega currents at three different closed states. Channels 4(2):93–100
Gamal El-Din TM, Scheuer T, Catterall WA (2014) Tracking S4 movement by gating pore currents in the bacterial sodium channel NaChBac. J Gen Physiol 144(2):147–157. doi:10.1085/jgp.201411210
Gandhi CS, Isacoff EY (2002) Molecular models of voltage sensing. J Gen Physiol 120(4):455–463
Gonzalez C, Koch HP, Drum BM, Larsson HP (2010) Strong cooperativity between subunits in voltage-gated proton channels. Nat Struct Mol Biol 17(1):51–56. doi:10.1038/nsmb.1739
Gonzalez C, Rebolledo S, Perez ME, Larsson HP (2013) Molecular mechanism of voltage sensing in voltage-gated proton channels. J Gen Physiol 141(3):275–285. doi:10.1085/jgp.201210857
Gosselin-Badaroudine P, Delemotte L, Moreau A, Klein ML, Chahine M (2012a) Gating pore currents and the resting state of Nav1.4 voltage sensor domains. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109(47):19250–19255. doi:10.1073/pnas.1217990109
Gosselin-Badaroudine P, Keller DI, Huang H, Pouliot V, Chatelier A, Osswald S, Brink M, Chahine M (2012b) A proton leak current through the cardiac sodium channel is linked to mixed arrhythmia and the dilated cardiomyopathy phenotype. PLoS One 7(5), e38331. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038331
Gosselin-Badaroudine P, Moreau A, Chahine M (2014) Nav 1.5 mutations linked to dilated cardiomyopathy phenotypes. Is the gating pore current the missing link? Channels 8(1):90–94. doi:10.4161/chan.27179
Grimm C, Kraft R, Sauerbruch S, Schultz G, Harteneck C (2003) Molecular and functional characterization of the melastatin-related cation channel TRPM3. J Biol Chem 278(24):21493–21501. doi:10.1074/jbc.M300945200
Groome JR, Lehmann-Horn F, Fan C, Wolf M, Winston V, Merlini L, Jurkat-Rott K (2014) NaV1.4 mutations cause hypokalaemic periodic paralysis by disrupting IIIS4 movement during recovery. Brain 137(Pt 4):998–1008. doi:10.1093/brain/awu015
Hasselblatt M, Mertsch S, Koos B, Riesmeier B, Stegemann H, Jeibmann A, Tomm M, Schmitz N, Wrede B, Wolff JE, Zheng W, Paulus W (2009) TWIST-1 is overexpressed in neoplastic choroid plexus epithelial cells and promotes proliferation and invasion. Cancer Res 69(6):2219–2223. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-08-3176
Held K, Kichko T, De Clercq K, Klaassen H, Van Bree R, Vanherck JC, Marchand A, Reeh PW, Chaltin P, Voets T, Vriens J (2015) Activation of TRPM3 by a potent synthetic ligand reveals a role in peptide release. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112(11):E1363–E1372. doi:10.1073/pnas.1419845112
Hille B (2001) Ion channels of excitable membranes, 3rd edn. Sinauer, Sunderland
Hoenderop JG, Voets T, Hoefs S, Weidema F, Prenen J, Nilius B, Bindels RJ (2003) Homo- and heterotetrameric architecture of the epithelial Ca2+ channels TRPV5 and TRPV6. EMBO J 22(4):776–785. doi:10.1093/emboj/cdg080
Hoffmann A, Grimm C, Kraft R, Goldbaum O, Wrede A, Nolte C, Hanisch UK, Richter-Landsberg C, Bruck W, Kettenmann H, Harteneck C (2010) TRPM3 is expressed in sphingosine-responsive myelinating oligodendrocytes. J Neurochem 114(3):654–665. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06644.x
Horn R (2002) Coupled movements in voltage-gated ion channels. J Gen Physiol 120(4):449–453
Jiang Y, Lee A, Chen J, Ruta V, Cadene M, Chait BT, MacKinnon R (2003) X-ray structure of a voltage-dependent K+ channel. Nature 423(6935):33–41. doi:10.1038/nature01580
Joshi A, Bhatt A, Jain A (2010) Hypokalaemic periodic paralysis – faces behind the mask: profile in rural Central India. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 11(2):116–120
Jurkat-Rott K, Weber MA, Fauler M, Guo XH, Holzherr BD, Paczulla A, Nordsborg N, Joechle W, Lehmann-Horn F (2009) K+-dependent paradoxical membrane depolarization and Na+ overload, major and reversible contributors to weakness by ion channel leaks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(10):4036–4041. doi:10.1073/pnas.0811277106
Jurkat-Rott K, Groome J, Lehmann-Horn F (2012) Pathophysiological role of omega pore current in channelopathies. Front Pharmacol 3:112. doi:10.3389/fphar.2012.00112
Kalia J, Swartz KJ (2013) Exploring structure-function relationships between TRP and Kv channels. Sci Rep-Uk 3. doi:10.1038/srep01523
Khalili-Araghi F, Tajkhorshid E, Roux B, Schulten K (2012) Molecular dynamics investigation of the omega-current in the Kv1.2 voltage sensor domains. Biophys J 102(2):258–267. doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2011.10.057
Klassen TL, Spencer AN, Gallin WJ (2008) A naturally occurring omega current in a Kv3 family potassium channel from a platyhelminth. BMC Neurosci 9:52. doi:10.1186/1471-2202-9-52
Koch HP, Kurokawa T, Okochi Y, Sasaki M, Okamura Y, Larsson HP (2008) Multimeric nature of voltage-gated proton channels. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(26):9111–9116. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801553105
Korgaonkar S, Tilea A, Gillespie BW, Kiser M, Eisele G, Finkelstein F, Kotanko P, Pitt B, Saran R (2010) Serum Potassium and Outcomes in CKD: insights from the RRI-CKD Cohort Study. Clin J Am Soc Nephro 5(5):762–769. doi:10.2215/Cjn.05850809
Kulleperuma K, Smith SM, Morgan D, Musset B, Holyoake J, Chakrabarti N, Cherny VV, DeCoursey TE, Pomes R (2013) Construction and validation of a homology model of the human voltage-gated proton channel hHV1. J Gen Physiol 141(4):445–465. doi:10.1085/jgp.201210856
Kunert-Keil C, Bisping F, Kruger J, Brinkmeier H (2006) Tissue-specific expression of TRP channel genes in the mouse and its variation in three different mouse strains. BMC Genomics 7:159. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-7-159
Lacroix JJ, Hyde HC, Campos FV, Bezanilla F (2014) Moving gating charges through the gating pore in a Kv channel voltage sensor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111(19):E1950–E1959. doi:10.1073/pnas.1406161111
Lee N, Chen J, Sun L, Wu S, Gray KR, Rich A, Huang M, Lin JH, Feder JN, Janovitz EB, Levesque PC, Blanar MA (2003) Expression and characterization of human transient receptor potential melastatin 3 (hTRPM3). J Biol Chem 278(23):20890–20897. doi:10.1074/jbc.M211232200
Lee SY, Letts JA, Mackinnon R (2008) Dimeric subunit stoichiometry of the human voltage-dependent proton channel Hv1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(22):7692–7695. doi:10.1073/pnas.0803277105
Li Q, Shen R, Treger JS, Wanderling SS, Milewski W, Siwowska K, Bezanilla F, Perozo E (2015) Resting state of the human proton channel dimer in a lipid bilayer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112(44):E5926–E5935. doi:10.1073/pnas.1515043112
Liao M, Cao E, Julius D, Cheng Y (2013) Structure of the TRPV1 ion channel determined by electron cryo-microscopy. Nature 504(7478):107–112. doi:10.1038/nature12822
Lishko PV, Botchkina IL, Fedorenko A, Kirichok Y (2010) Acid extrusion from human spermatozoa is mediated by flagellar voltage-gated proton channel. Cell 140(3):327–337. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.12.053
Long SB, Campbell EB, Mackinnon R (2005) Crystal structure of a mammalian voltage-dependent Shaker family K+ channel. Science 309(5736):897–903. doi:10.1126/science.1116269
Long SB, Tao X, Campbell EB, MacKinnon R (2007) Atomic structure of a voltage-dependent K+ channel in a lipid membrane-like environment. Nature 450(7168):376–382. doi:10.1038/nature06265
Mannuzzu LM, Moronne MM, Isacoff EY (1996) Direct physical measure of conformational rearrangement underlying potassium channel gating. Science 271(5246):213–216
Matthews E, Hanna MG (2010) Muscle channelopathies: does the predicted channel gating pore offer new treatment insights for hypokalaemic periodic paralysis? J Physiol 588(Pt 11):1879–1886. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2009.186627
McCusker EC, Bagneris C, Naylor CE, Cole AR, D'Avanzo N, Nichols CG, Wallace BA (2012) Structure of a bacterial voltage-gated sodium channel pore reveals mechanisms of opening and closing. Nat Commun 3:1102. doi:10.1038/ncomms2077
Mi W, Rybalchenko V, Cannon SC (2014) Disrupted coupling of gating charge displacement to Na+ current activation for DIIS4 mutations in hypokalemic periodic paralysis. J Gen Physiol 144(2):137–145. doi:10.1085/jgp.201411199
Miceli F, Vargas E, Bezanilla F, Taglialatela M (2012) Gating currents from Kv7 channels carrying neuronal hyperexcitability mutations in the voltage-sensing domain. Biophys J 102(6):1372–1382. doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2012.02.004
Miller C (2000) An overview of the potassium channel family. Genome Biol 1(4):REVIEWS0004. doi:10.1186/gb-2000-1-4-reviews0004
Mony L, Berger TK, Isacoff EY (2015) A specialized molecular motion opens the Hv1 voltage-gated proton channel. Nat Struct Mol Biol 22(4):283–290. doi:10.1038/nsmb.2978
Moreau A, Gosselin-Badaroudine P, Chahine M (2014) Biophysics, pathophysiology, and pharmacology of ion channel gating pores. Front Pharmacol 5:53. doi:10.3389/fphar.2014.00053
Moreau A, Gosselin-Badaroudine P, Chahine M (2015a) Gating pore currents, a new pathological mechanism underlying cardiac arrhythmias associated with dilated cardiomyopathy. Channels 9(3):139–144. doi:10.1080/19336950.2015.1031937
Moreau A, Gosselin-Badaroudine P, Delemotte L, Klein ML, Chahine M (2015b) Gating pore currents are defects in common with two Nav1.5 mutations in patients with mixed arrhythmias and dilated cardiomyopathy. J Gen Physiol 145(2):93–106. doi:10.1085/jgp.201411304
Musset B, Smith SM, Rajan S, Morgan D, Cherny VV, Decoursey TE (2011) Aspartate 112 is the selectivity filter of the human voltage-gated proton channel. Nature 480(7376):273–277. doi:10.1038/nature10557
Oberwinkler J, Lis A, Giehl KM, Flockerzi V, Philipp SE (2005) Alternative splicing switches the divalent cation selectivity of TRPM3 channels. J Biol Chem 280(23):22540–22548. doi:10.1074/jbc.M503092200
Papazian DM, Shao XM, Seoh SA, Mock AF, Huang Y, Wainstock DH (1995) Electrostatic interactions of S4 voltage sensor in Shaker K+ channel. Neuron 14(6):1293–1301
Pathak MM, Yarov-Yarovoy V, Agarwal G, Roux B, Barth P, Kohout S, Tombola F, Isacoff EY (2007) Closing in on the resting state of the Shaker K(+) channel. Neuron 56(1):124–140. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.09.023
Paulsen CE, Armache JP, Gao Y, Cheng Y, Julius D (2015) Structure of the TRPA1 ion channel suggests regulatory mechanisms. Nature 520(7548):511–517. doi:10.1038/nature14367
Payandeh J, Scheuer T, Zheng N, Catterall WA (2011) The crystal structure of a voltage-gated sodium channel. Nature 475(7356):353–358. doi:10.1038/nature10238
Platt D, Griggs R (2009) Skeletal muscle channelopathies: new insights into the periodic paralyses and nondystrophic myotonias. Curr Opin Neurol 22(5):524–531. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e32832efa8f
Pless SA, Galpin JD, Niciforovic AP, Ahern CA (2011) Contributions of counter-charge in a potassium channel voltage-sensor domain. Nat Chem Biol 7(9):617–623. doi:10.1038/nchembio.622
Qiu F, Rebolledo S, Gonzalez C, Larsson HP (2013) Subunit interactions during cooperative opening of voltage-gated proton channels. Neuron 77(2):288–298. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.12.021
Raja Rayan DL, Hanna MG (2010) Skeletal muscle channelopathies: nondystrophic myotonias and periodic paralysis. Curr Opin Neurol 23(5):466–476. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e32833cc97e
Ramsey IS, Moran MM, Chong JA, Clapham DE (2006) A voltage-gated proton-selective channel lacking the pore domain. Nature 440(7088):1213–1216. doi:10.1038/nature04700
Rudel R, Lehmann-Horn F, Ricker K, Kuther G (1984) Hypokalemic periodic paralysis: in vitro investigation of muscle fiber membrane parameters. Muscle Nerve 7(2):110–120. doi:10.1002/mus.880070205
Sanchez JC, Powell T, Staines HM, Wilkins RJ (2006) Electrophysiological demonstration of voltage- activated H+ channels in bovine articular chondrocytes. Cell Physiol Biochem 18(1-3):85–90. doi:10.1159/000095171
Sasaki M, Takagi M, Okamura Y (2006) A voltage sensor-domain protein is a voltage-gated proton channel. Science 312(5773):589–592. doi:10.1126/science.1122352
Shah NH, Aizenman E (2014) Voltage-gated potassium channels at the crossroads of neuronal function, ischemic tolerance, and neurodegeneration. Transl Stroke Res 5(1):38–58. doi:10.1007/s12975-013-0297-7
Sokolov S, Scheuer T, Catterall WA (2005) Ion permeation through a voltage-sensitive gating pore in brain sodium channels having voltage sensor mutations. Neuron 47(2):183–189. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.06.012
Sokolov S, Scheuer T, Catterall WA (2007) Gating pore current in an inherited ion channelopathy. Nature 446(7131):76–78. doi:10.1038/nature05598
Sokolov S, Scheuer T, Catterall WA (2008) Depolarization-activated gating pore current conducted by mutant sodium channels in potassium-sensitive normokalemic periodic paralysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(50):19980–19985. doi:10.1073/pnas.0810562105
Sokolov S, Scheuer T, Catterall WA (2010) Ion permeation and block of the gating pore in the voltage sensor of NaV1.4 channels with hypokalemic periodic paralysis mutations. J Gen Physiol 136(2):225–236. doi:10.1085/jgp.201010414
Starace DM, Bezanilla F (2001) Histidine scanning mutagenesis of basic residues of the S4 segment of the shaker k+ channel. J Gen Physiol 117(5):469–490
Starace DM, Bezanilla F (2004) A proton pore in a potassium channel voltage sensor reveals a focused electric field. Nature 427(6974):548–553. doi:10.1038/nature02270
Starace DM, Stefani E, Bezanilla F (1997) Voltage-dependent proton transport by the voltage sensor of the Shaker K+ channel. Neuron 19(6):1319–1327
Stock L, Souza C, Treptow W (2013) Structural basis for activation of voltage-gated cation channels. Biochemistry 52(9):1501–1513. doi:10.1021/bi3013017
Struyk AF, Cannon SC (2007) A Na+ channel mutation linked to hypokalemic periodic paralysis exposes a proton-selective gating pore. J Gen Physiol 130(1):11–20. doi:10.1085/jgp.200709755
Struyk AF, Markin VS, Francis D, Cannon SC (2008) Gating pore currents in DIIS4 mutations of NaV1.4 associated with periodic paralysis: saturation of ion flux and implications for disease pathogenesis. J Gen Physiol 132(4):447–464. doi:10.1085/jgp.200809967
Takeshita K, Sakata S, Yamashita E, Fujiwara Y, Kawanabe A, Kurokawa T, Okochi Y, Matsuda M, Narita H, Okamura Y, Nakagawa A (2014) X-ray crystal structure of voltage-gated proton channel. Nat Struct Mol Biol 21(4):352–357. doi:10.1038/nsmb.2783
Tao X, Lee A, Limapichat W, Dougherty DA, MacKinnon R (2010) A gating charge transfer center in voltage sensors. Science 328(5974):67–73. doi:10.1126/science.1185954
Tombola F, Pathak MM, Isacoff EY (2005) Voltage-sensing arginines in a potassium channel permeate and occlude cation-selective pores. Neuron 45(3):379–388. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.12.047
Tombola F, Pathak MM, Gorostiza P, Isacoff EY (2007) The twisted ion-permeation pathway of a resting voltage-sensing domain. Nature 445(7127):546–549. doi:10.1038/nature05396
Tombola F, Ulbrich MH, Isacoff EY (2008) The voltage-gated proton channel Hv1 has two pores, each controlled by one voltage sensor. Neuron 58(4):546–556. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.03.026
Tombola F, Ulbrich MH, Isacoff EY (2009) Architecture and gating of Hv1 proton channels. J Physiol 587(Pt 22):5325–5329. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2009.180265
Vicart S, Sternberg D, Fournier E, Ochsner F, Laforet P, Kuntzer T, Eymard B, Hainque B, Fontaine B (2004) New mutations of SCN4A cause a potassium-sensitive normokalemic periodic paralysis. Neurology 63(11):2120–2127
Vriens J, Owsianik G, Hofmann T, Philipp SE, Stab J, Chen X, Benoit M, Xue F, Janssens A, Kerselaers S, Oberwinkler J, Vennekens R, Gudermann T, Nilius B, Voets T (2011) TRPM3 is a nociceptor channel involved in the detection of noxious heat. Neuron 70(3):482–494. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.02.051
Vriens J, Held K, Janssens A, Toth BI, Kerselaers S, Nilius B, Vennekens R, Voets T (2014) Opening of an alternative ion permeation pathway in a nociceptor TRP channel. Nat Chem Biol 10(3):188–195. doi:10.1038/nchembio.1428
Wagner TF, Loch S, Lambert S, Straub I, Mannebach S, Mathar I, Dufer M, Lis A, Flockerzi V, Philipp SE, Oberwinkler J (2008) Transient receptor potential M3 channels are ionotropic steroid receptors in pancreatic beta cells. Nat Cell Biol 10(12):1421–1430. doi:10.1038/ncb1801
Wagner TF, Drews A, Loch S, Mohr F, Philipp SE, Lambert S, Oberwinkler J (2010) TRPM3 channels provide a regulated influx pathway for zinc in pancreatic beta cells. Pflugers Arch 460(4):755–765. doi:10.1007/s00424-010-0838-9
Wu LJ, Sweet TB, Clapham DE (2010) International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. LXXVI Current progress in the mammalian TRP ion channel family. Pharmacol Rev 62(3):381–404. doi:10.1124/pr.110.002725
Wu F, Mi W, Burns DK, Fu Y, Gray HF, Struyk AF, Cannon SC (2011) A sodium channel knockin mutant (NaV1.4-R669H) mouse model of hypokalemic periodic paralysis. J Clin Invest 121(10):4082–4094. doi:10.1172/JCI57398
Wu F, Mi W, Hernandez-Ochoa EO, Burns DK, Fu Y, Gray HF, Struyk AF, Schneider MF, Cannon SC (2012a) A calcium channel mutant mouse model of hypokalemic periodic paralysis. J Clin Invest 122(12):4580–4591. doi:10.1172/JCI66091
Wu LJ, Wu G, Akhavan Sharif MR, Baker A, Jia Y, Fahey FH, Luo HR, Feener EP, Clapham DE (2012b) The voltage-gated proton channel Hv1 enhances brain damage from ischemic stroke. Nat Neurosci 15(4):565–573. doi:10.1038/nn.3059
Yang N, Horn R (1995) Evidence for voltage-dependent S4 movement in sodium channels. Neuron 15(1):213–218
Yang N, George AL Jr, Horn R (1996) Molecular basis of charge movement in voltage-gated sodium channels. Neuron 16(1):113–122
Zhang X, Ren W, DeCaen P, Yan C, Tao X, Tang L, Wang J, Hasegawa K, Kumasaka T, He J, Wang J, Clapham DE, Yan N (2012) Crystal structure of an orthologue of the NaChBac voltage-gated sodium channel. Nature 486(7401):130–134. doi:10.1038/nature11054
Acknowledgments
We thank all members of the Laboratory of Experimental Gynecology and the members of the Laboratory of Ion Channel Research for helpful discussions. This work was supported by grants from the Belgian Federal Government (IUAP P7/13 to T.V.), the Research Foundation-Flanders (G.0565.07 and G.0825.11 to T.V. & J.V. and G.084515N to J.V.), and the Research Council of the KU Leuven (PF-TRPLe to T.V.). K.H. is funded by the FWO Belgium.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Held, K., Voets, T., Vriens, J. (2016). Signature and Pathophysiology of Non-canonical Pores in Voltage-Dependent Cation Channels. In: Nilius, B., de Tombe, P., Gudermann, T., Jahn, R., Lill, R., Petersen, O. (eds) Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology Vol. 170. Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, vol 170. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/112_2015_5003
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/112_2015_5003
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-31491-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-31492-1
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)