Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Human Origins and Environmental Backgrounds pp 249–258Cite as

Are Human Beings Apes, or are Apes People too?

  • Conference paper

Part of the book series: Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects ((DIPR))

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

9. References

  • Asfaw, B., White, T., Lovejoy, O., Latimer, B., Simpson, S., and Suwa, G., 1999, Australopithecus garhi: A new species of early hominid from Ethiopia, Science. 284: 629–635.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, W.J., Hayasaka, K., Skinner, C.G., Kehoe, S., Sieu, L.C., Slightom, J.L., and Goodman, M., 1992, Reexamination of the African hominoid trichotomy with additional sequences from primate β-globin gene cluster, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 1: 97–135.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Begun, D.R., 1999, Hominid family values: Morphological and molecular data on relations among the great apes and humans, in: The Mentalities of Gorillas and Orangutans, S.T. Parker, R.W. Mitchell & H.L. Miles, eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 3–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandon-Jones, D., Eudey, A.A., Geissmann, T., Groves, C.P., Melnick, D.J., Morales, J.C., Shekelle, M., and Stewart, C.-B., 2004, Asian Primate Classification, International Journal of Primatology. 25: 97–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Britten, R.J. 2002, Divergence between samples of chimpanzee and human DNA sequences is 5%, counting indels, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99: 1363–1369.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Britten, R.J., Rowen, L., Williams, J., and Cameron, R.A., 2003, Majority of divergence between closely related DNA samples is due to indels, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100: 4661–4665.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brunet, M., Beauvilain, A., Coppens, Y., Heintz, E., Moutaye, A.H.E., and Pilbeam, D., 1995, The first australopithecine 2,500 kilometers west of the Rift Valley (Chad), Nature. 378: 273–275.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • — 1996, Australopithecus bahrelghazali, une nouvelle espèce d’Hominidé ancien de la région de Koro Toro (Tchad), Comptes Rendus de l”Académie des Sciences, Série II. 322: 907–913.

    Google Scholar 

  • Claverie, J.M., 2001, What if there are only 30,000 human genes?, Science. 29: 1255–1257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., 1997, How many genes are there?, Science. 275: 769.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corruccini, R.S., 1994, How certain are hominoid phylogenies? The role of confidence intervals in cladistics, in: Integrative Paths to the Past, R.S. Corruccini & R.L. Ciochon, eds., Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 167–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, T.W., 1997, The Symbolic Species, W.W. Norton, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deinard, A., and Kidd, K., 1999, Evolution of a HOXB6 intergenic region within the great apes and humans, Journal of Human Evolution. 36: 687–703.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J.M., 1988, DNA-based phylogenies of the three chimpanzees, Nature. 332: 685–686.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Durham, W.H., 1991, Coevolution, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fields, C., Adams, M.D, White, O., and Vernier, J.C., 1994, How many genes in the human genome?, Nature Genetics. 7: 345–346.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fouts, R., and Mills, S.T., 1997, Next of Kin, William Morrow & Co., New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geertz, C., 1973, The Interpretation of Cultures, Basic Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, M., Porter, C.A., Czelusniak, J., Page, S.L., Schneider, H., Shoshani, J., Gunnell, G., and Groves, C.P., 1998, Toward a phylogenetic classification of primates based on DNA evidence complemented by fossil evidence, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 9: 585–598.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grausz, H.M., Leakey, R.E., Walker, A.C., and Ward, C.V., 1988, Associated cranial and postcranial bones of Australopithecus boisei, in: Evolutionary History of the “Robust” Australopithecines, F.E. Grine, ed., Aldine de Gruyter, New York, pp. 127–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grubb, P., Butynski, T.M., Oates, J.F., Bearder, S.K., Disotell, T.R., Groves, C.P., Struhsaker, T.T., 2003, Assessment of the Diversity of African Primates, International Journal of Primatology. 24: 1301–1357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haile-Selassie, Y., Suwa, G., and White, T. D., 2004, Late Miocene teeth from Middle Awash, Ethiopia, and early hominid dental evolution, Science 303: 1503–1505.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hamdi, H., Nishio, H., Zielinski, R., and Dugaiczyk, A., 1999, Origin and phylogenetic distribution of Alu DNA repeats: Irreversible events in the evolution of primates, Journal of Molecular Biology. 289: 861–871.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M., 1999, Theories of Culture in Postmodern Times, Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hattori, M. et al. (n = 63 authors), 2000, The DNA sequence of human chromosome 21, Nature. 405: 311–319.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horai, S., Hayasaka, K., Kondo, R., Tsugane, K., and Takahata, N., 1995, Recent African origin of modern humans revealed by complete sequences of hominoid mitochondrial DNAs, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America. 92: 532–536.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kay, R.F., and Grine, F.E., 1988, Tooth morphology and diet in Australopithecus and Paranthropus from South Africa, in: Evolutionary History of the “Robust” Australopithecines, F.E. Grine, ed., Aldine de Gruyter, New York, pp. 427–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keesing, R., 1974, Theories of culture, Annual Review of Anthropology. 3: 73–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuper, A., 1999, Culture. The Anthropologists’ Account, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leakey, M.G., Feibel, C.S., McDougall, I., and Walker, A., 1995, New four-million-year-old hominid species from Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya, Nature. 376: 565–571.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, D.E., Wood, B.A., and Pilbeam, D.R., 1996, Homoplasy and early Homo: An analysis of the evolutionary relationships of H. habilis sensu stricto and H. rudolfensis, Journal of Human Evolution. 30: 97–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, J., 1995, Learning to live with the trichotomy, American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 98: 211–232.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayr, E., 1969, Principles of Systematic Zoology, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • McHenry, H.M., 1994, Early hominid postcrania. phylogeny and function, in: Integrative Paths to the Past, R.S. Corruccini & Russell L. Ciochon, eds., Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 251–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miles, H.L., 1999, Symbolic communication with and by great apes, in: The Mentalities of Gorillas and Orangutans S.T., Parker, R.W. Mitchell & H.L. Miles, eds., CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 197–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naylor, G.J.P., and Brown, W.M., 1998, Amphioxus mitochondrial DNA, chordate phylogeny, and the limits of inference based on comparison of sequences, Systematic Biology. 47: 61–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, S.J., Menotti-Raymond, M., Murphy, W.J., Nash, W.G., Wienberg, J., Stanyon, R., Copeland, N.G., Jenkins, N.A., Womack, J.E., and Graves, J.A.M., 1999, The promise of comparative genomics in mammals, Science. 286: 458–481.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, F.G., and Cohn, R.H., 1994, Self-recognition and self-awareness in lowland gorillas, in: Self-awareness in Animals and Humans, S.T. Parker, R.W. Mitchell & M.L. Boccia, eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 273–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, C.P., 1993, Shell strength and primate seed predation of nontoxic species in eastern and southern Africa, International Journal of Primatology. 14: 315–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickford, M., and Ishida, H., 1998, Interpretation of Samburupithecus, an Upper Miocene hominoid from Kenya, Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Sciences Paris, Sciences de la terre et des planètes. 326:299–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reeves, R.H., 2000, Recounting a genetic story, Nature. 405: 283–284.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire, G.P., 1990, The evolution of Homo erectus, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, M.B., Stringer, C.B., and Parfitt, S.A., 1994, A hominid tibia from Middle Pleistocene sediments at Boxgrove, UK, Nature. 369: 311–313.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, J.T., 1972, Early Hominid Posture and Locomotion, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, J., 1994, Levels of geneological hierarchy and the problem of hominoid phylogeny, American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 94: 81–88.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, M.D., 1984, A hominine hip bone, KNM-ER 3228, from East Lake Turkana, Kenya, American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 63: 371–378.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruvolo, M., 1996, A new approach to studying modern human origins: Hypothesis testing with coalescence time distributions, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 5: 202–219.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Samollow, P.B., Cherry, L.M., White, S.M., and J. Rogers., 1996, Interspecific variation at the Y-linked RPS4Y locus in hominoids: implications for phylogeny, American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 101: 333–343.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Savage-Rumbaugh, S., Shanker, S.G., and Taylor, T.J., 1998, Apes, Language, and the Human Mind, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shipman, P., and Harris, J.M., 1988, Habitat preference and paleoecology of Australopithecus boisei in eastern Africa, in: Evolutionary History of the “Robust” Australopithecines, F.E. Grine, ed., Aldine de Gruyter, New York, pp. 343–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strait, D.A., Grine, F.E., and Moniz, M.A., 1997, A reappraisal of early hominid phylogeny, Journal of Human Evolution. 32: 17–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suwa, G., Asfaw, B., Beyene, Y., White, T.D., Katoh, S., Nagaoka, S., Nakaya, H., Uzawa, K., Renne, P., and WoldeGabriel, G., 1997, The first skull of Australopithecus boisei, Nature. 389: 489–492.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tattersall, I., 2000, Once we were not alone, Scientific American. 282: 56–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tardieu, C., 1999, Ontogeny and phylogeny of femoro-tibial characters in humans and hominid fossils: Functional influence and genetic determinism, American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 110: 365–377.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trinkaus, E., Ruff, C.B., and Churchill, S.E., 1998, Upper limb versus lower limb loading patterns among Near Eastern Middle Paleolithic hominids, in: Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia, T. Akazawa, K. Aoki, and O. Bar-Yosef, eds., Plenum, New York, pp. 391–404.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, T., 1993, Anthropology and multiculturalism: What is anthropology that multiculturalists should be mindful of it? Current Anthropology. 8: 411–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuttle, R.H., 1967, Knuckle-walking and the evolution of hominoid hands, American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 26: 171–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • — 2001, Fossils, phylogenies and feelings: Can evolutionary biology contribute to the great ape project?, in: Great Apes and Humans at an Ethical Frontier, B.B. Beck, T.S. Stoinski, A. Arluke, M. Hutchins, T.L. Maple, B. Norton, A. Rowan, and B.F. Stevens, eds., Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 178–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Venter, J.C. et al. (n=268 authors)., The sequence of the human genome, Science. 291: 1304–1351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vrba, E.S., 1988, Late Pliocene climatic events and hominid evolution, in: Evolutionary History of the “Robust”Australopithecines, F.E. Grine, ed., Aldine de Gruyter, New York, pp. 405–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Waal, F.B.M., 1999, Cultural primatology comes of age, Nature. 399: 635–636.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, A., 1981, Dietary hypotheses and human evolution, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London. B-292: 57–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1993, Perspectives on the Nariokotome discovery, in: The Nariokotome Homo erectus Skeleton, A. Walker and R. Leakey, eds., Harvard Universtiy Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 411–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, C.V., Leakey, M.G., Brown, B., Brown, F., Harris, J., and Walker, A., 1999, South Turkwel: A new Pliocene hominid site in Kenya, Journal of Human Evolution. 36: 69–95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • White, L.A. and Dillingham, B., 1973, The Concept of Culture, Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis, MN.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, T.D., Suwa, G., and Asfaw, B., 1994, Australopithecus ramidus, a new species of early hominid from Aramis, Ethiopia, Nature. 371: 306–312.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • — 1995, Corrigendum, Nature. 375: 88.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W.C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., Tutin, C.E.G., Wrangham, R.W., and Boesch, C., 1999, Cultures in chimpanzees, Nature. 399: 682–685.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, B.A., 1992, Origin and evolution of the genus Homo, Nature. 355: 783–790.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, B., and Collard, M., 1999, The human genus, Science. 284: 65–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anthropology, The University of Chicago, 1126 E. 59th Street, Chicago, IL, 60637-1614, USA

    Russell H. Tuttle

Authors
  1. Russell H. Tuttle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Shiga Prefecture, Shiga, Japan

    Hidemi Ishida

  2. University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

    Russell Tuttle

  3. Collège de France, Paris, France

    Martin Pickford

  4. Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan

    Naomichi Ogihara  & Masato Nakatsukasa  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

About this paper

Cite this paper

Tuttle, R.H. (2006). Are Human Beings Apes, or are Apes People too?. In: Ishida, H., Tuttle, R., Pickford, M., Ogihara, N., Nakatsukasa, M. (eds) Human Origins and Environmental Backgrounds. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer, Boston, MA . https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29798-7_19

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation