Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Anthrax: A Disease and a Weapon

  • Chapter
Bioterrorism and Infectious Agents: A New Dilemma for the 21st Century

Part of the book series: Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21st Century ((EIDC))

  • 932 Accesses

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Abramova, A.A., and Grinberg, L.M. (1993). [Pathology of anthrax sepsis according to materials of the infectious outbreak in 1979 in Sverdlovsk (microscopic change s)] Arkh. Patol. 55:18–23 (in Russian).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abramova, F.A., Grinberg, L.M., Yampolskaya, O.V., and Walker, D.H. (1993). Pathology of inhalational anthrax in 42 cases from the Sverdlovsk outbreak of 1979. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:2291–2294.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ABS, a Subsidiary of Analex. (2004). Report to the Department of State, August.

    Google Scholar 

  • Albrink, W., Brooks, S., Biron, R., and Kopel, M. (1960). Human inhalation anthrax: a report of three fatal cases. Am. J. Pathol. 36:457–468.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Albrink, W.S., and Goodlow, R.J. (1959). Experimental inhalation anthrax in chimpanzees. Am. J. Pathol. 35:1055–1065.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alibek, K. (1999). Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World — Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It. Random House, New York, p. 74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barakat, L.A., Quentzel, H.L., Jernigan, J.A., Kirschke, D.L., Griffith, K., Spear, S.M., Kelley, K., Barden, D., Mayo, D., Stephens, D.S., Popovic, T., Marston, C., Zaki, S.R., Guarner, J., Shieh, W.J., Carver, H.W. 2nd, Meyer, R.F., Swerdlow, D.L., Mast, E.E., and Hadler, J.L. [Anthrax Bioterrorism Investigation Team]. (2002). Fatal inhalational anthrax in a 94-year-old Connecticut woman. J.A.M.A., 287(7):863–868.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnaby, W. (2000). The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Weapons. Continuum, New York, 123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belluck, P. (2001). Anthrax Outbreak of’ 57 Felled a Mill but Yielded Answers. New York Times, October 27, 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonventre, P.F., and Eckert, N.J. (1963). The biologic activities of Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus cereus culture filtrates. Am. J. Pathol. 43:201–211.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonventre, P.F., Sueoka, W., True, C.W., Klein, F., and Lincoln, R. (1967). Attempts to implicate the central nervous system as a primary site of action for Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin. Fed. Proc. 26:1549–1553.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brachman, P., and Pagano, J. (1961). Two cases of fatal inhalation anthrax, one associated with sarcoidosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 265:203–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brachman, P.S. (1980). Inhalation anthrax. Ann N.Y. Acad. Sci. 353:83–93.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brook, I. (2002). The prophylaxis and treatment of anthrax. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 20(5):320–325 [review].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brooksher, W., and Briggs, J. (1920). Pulmonary anthrax: report of a case. J.A.M.A. 74:323–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bush, L.M., Abrams, B.H., Beall, A., and Johnson, C.C. (2001). Index case of fatal inhalational anthrax due to bioterrorism in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 345:1607–1610.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carucci, J.A., McGovern, T.W., Norton, S.A., Daniel, C.R., Elewski, B.E., Fallon-Friedlander, S., Lushniak, B.D., Taylor, J.S., Warschaw, K., and Wheeland, R.G. (2002). Cutaneous anthrax management algorithm. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 47(5):766–769.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carus, W.S. (2001). Bioterrorism and Biocrimes: The Illicit Use of Biological Agents Since 1900. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Center for Counterproliferation Research, pp. 108–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • CDC Emergency Preparedness and Response Website. (2001). Anthrax Q & A. http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/anthrax/faq/diagnosis.asp.

    Google Scholar 

  • CDC Treatment Protocols for Cases of Inhalational and Cutaneous Anthrax Associated with Bioterrorist Attack Website. (2001). Anthrax Q & A. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5042a1.htm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandramukhi, A., Shankar, P., Rao, T., Sundararajan, S., and Swamy, H.S. (1987). Acute leptomeningitis due to Bacillus anthracis. Trop. Geol. Med. 35:79–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • CNN.com (2001). Anthrax through the ages. http://www.cnn.com/2001/HEALTH/conditions/10/16/anthrax.timeline/

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, S.T., Eiglmeier, K., Parkhill, J., James, K.D., Thomson, N.R., Wheeler, P.R., Honore, N., Garnier, T., Churcher, C., Harris, D., Mungall, K., Basham, D., Brown, D., Chillingworth, T., Connor, R., Davies, R.M., Devlin, K., Duthoy, S., Feltwell, T., Fraser, A., Hamlin, N., Holroyd, S., Hornsby, T., Jagels, K., Lacroix, C., Maclean, J., Moule, S., Murphy, L., Oliver, K., Quail, M.A., Rajandream, M.A., Rutherford, K.M., Rutter, S., Seeger, K., Simon, S., Simmonds, M., Skelton, J., Squares, R., Squares, S., Stevens, K., Taylor, K., Whitehead, S., Woodward, J.R., and Barrell, B.G. (2001). Massive gene decay in the leprosy bacillus. Nature 409:1007–1011.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Committee to Assess the Safety and Efficacy of the Anthrax Vaccine, Medical Follow-Up Agency. (2002). The Anthrax Vaccine: Is It Safe? Does It Work? Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., http://www.iom.edu/iom/iomhome.nsf/WFiles/Anthrax-8-pager1FINAL/$file/Anthrax-8-pager1FINAL.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowdery, J. (1947). Primary pulmonary anthrax with septicemia. Arch. Pathol. 43:396–399.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cranmer, H., and Martinez, M. (2003). CBRNE — anthrax infection. http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic864.htm/.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalldorf, F.G., and Beall, F.A. (1967). Capillary thrombosis as a cause of death in experimental anthrax. Arch. Pathol. 83:154–161.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, T.C., Fadl, A.A., Koehler, T.M., Swanson, J.A., and Hanna, P.C. (2000). Early Bacillus anthracismacrophage interactions: intracellular survival survival and escape. Cell Microbiol. 2:453–463.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doganay, M., Almac, A., and Hanagasi, R. (1986). Primary throat anthrax. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 18:415–419.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drake, D.J., and Blair, A.W. (1971). Meningitic anthrax. Cent. Afr. J. Med. 17:97–98.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dutz, W., and Kohout, E. (1971). Anthrax. Pathol. Annu. 6:209–248.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Enticknap, J.B., Galbraith, N.S., Tomlinson, A.J.H., and Elias-Jones, T.F. (1968). Pulmonary anthrax caused by contaminated sacks. Br. J. Industr. Med. 25:72–74.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eremin, S.A., Nikiforov, A.K., Kostiukova, T.A., and Mikshis, N.I. (1999). The capacity of the causative agent of anthrax to reduce methylene blue. Zh. Mikrobiol. Epidemiol. Immunobiol. 4:91–92 (in Russian).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erwin, J.L., DaSilva, L.M., Bavari, S., Little, S.F., Friedlander, A.M., and Chanh, T.C. (2001). Macrophage-derived cell lines do not express proinflammatory cytokines after exposure to Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin. Infect. Immun. 69:1175–1177.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fellows, P., Linscott, M., Ivins, B., et al. (2001). Efficacy of a human anthrax vaccine in guinea pigs, rabbits, and rhesus macaques against challenge by Bacillus anthracis isolates of diverse geographical origin. Vaccine 19:3241–3247.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fouet, A., Sirard, J.C., and Mock, M. (1994). Bacillus anthracis pXO1 virulence plasmid encodes a type 1 DNA topoisomerase. Mol. Microbiol. 11:471–479.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedlander, A.M. (1986). Macrophages are sensitive to anthrax lethal toxin through an acid-dependent process. J. Biol. Chem. 261:7123–7126.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedlander, A.M., Welkos, S.L., Pitt, M.L.M., Ezzell, J.W., Worsham, P.L., Rose, K.J., Ivins, B.E., Lowe, J.R., Howe, G.B., Mikesell, P., and Lawrence, W.B. (1993). Postexposure prophylaxis against experimental inhalation anthrax. J. Infect. Dis. 167:1239–1243.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fukao, T. (2004). Immune system paralysis by anthrax lethal toxin: the roles of innate and adaptive immunity. Lancet Infect. Dis. 4:166–170 [review].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gold, H. (1955). Anthrax: a report of one hundred seventeen cases. AMA Arch. Intern. Med. 96:387–396.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, J.W., and Nitecki, D.E. (1967). Studies on the relation of a prior immune response to immunogenicity. Immunology 13:577–583.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, V.M., Klimpel, K.R., Arora, N., Henderson, M.A., and Leppla, S.H. (1995). Proteolytic activation of bacterial toxins by eukaryotic cells is performed by furin and by additional cellular proteases. Infect. Immun. 63:82–87.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, D., Slack, R., and Peutherer, J. (1997). Medical Microbiology. A Guide to Microbial Infections: Pathogenesis, Immunity, Laboratory Diagnosis and Control. Churchill Livingstone, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grinberg, L.M., Abramova, F.A., Yampolskaya, O.V., Walker, D.H., and Smith, J.H. (2001). Quantitative pathology of inhalational anthrax I: quantitative microscopic findings. Mod. Pathol. 14:482–495.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guidi-Rontani, C., Levy, M., Ohayon, H., and Mock, M. (2001). Fate of germinated Bacillus anthracis spores in primary murine macrophages. Mol. Microbiol. 42:931–938 [erratum in Mol. Microbiol. 2002;44:297].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guidi-Rontani, C., Pereira, Y., Ruffie, S., Sirard, J.C., Weber-Levy, M., and Mock, M. (1999). Identification and characterization of a germination operon on the virulence plasmid pXO1 of Bacillus anthracis. Mol. Microbiol. 33:407–414.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guidi-Rontani C., Weber-Levy, M., Labruyère, E., and Mock, M. (1999). Germination of Bacillus anthracis spores within alveolar macrophages. Mol. Microbiol. 31:9–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haight, T.H. (1952). Anthrax meningitis: review of literature and report of two cases with autopsies. Am. J. Med. Sci. 224:57–69.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hail, A.S., Rossi, C.A., Ludwig, G.V., Ivins, B.E., Tammariello, R.F., and Henchal, E.A. (1999). Comparison of non-invasive sampling sites for early detection of Bacillus anthracis spores from rhesus monkeys after aerosol exposure. Mil. Med. 164:833–837.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, P.C., Kruskal, B.A., Ezekowitz, R.A., Bloom, B.R., and Collier, R.J. (1994). Role of macrophage oxidative burst in the action of anthrax lethal toxin. Mol. Med. 1:7–18.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, H.J., Norberg, B.K., and Schmiterloew, C.G. (1961). Pathophysiological studies on anthrax. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 51(Suppl 144):307–308.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heidelberg, J.F., Eisen, J.A., Nelson, W.C., Clayton, R.A., Gwinn, M.L., Dodson, R.J., Haft, D.H., Hickey, E.K., Peterson, J.D., Umayam, L., Gill, S.R., Nelson, K.E., Read, T.D., Tettelin, H., Richardson, D., Ermolaeva, M.D., Vamathevan, J., Bass, S., Qin, H., Dragoi, I., Sellers, P., McDonald, L., Utterback, T., Fleishmann, R.D., Nierman, W.C., and White, O. (2000). DNA sequence of both chromosomes of the cholera pathogen Vibrio cholerae. Nature 406:477–483.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Inglesby, T.V., O’Toole, T., Henderson, D.A., Bartlett, J.G., Ascher, M.S., Eitzen, E., Friedlander, A.M., Gerberding, J., Hauer, J., Hughes, J., McDade, J., Osterholm, M.T., Parker, G., Perl, T.M., Russell, T.K., and Tonat, K. (2002). Anthrax as a biological weapon, 2002: updated recommendations for management. J.A.M.A. 287:2236–2252 [review; erratum in J.A.M.A. 2002;288:1849].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ivins, B.E., Fellows, P., and Pitt, M.L., et al. (1996). Efficacy of standard human anthrax vaccine against Bacillus anthracis aerosol spore challenge in rhesus monkeys. Salisbury Med. Bull. 87:125–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jamie, W.E. (2002). Anthrax: diagnosis, treatment, prevention. Primary Care Update for OB/GYNs 9:117–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jernigan, D.B., Raghunathan, P.L., Bell, B.P., Brechner, R., Bresnitz, E.A., Butler, J.C., Cetron, M., Cohen, M., Doyle, T., Fischer, M., Greene, C., Griffith, K.S., Guarner, J., Hadler, J.L., Hayslett, J.A., Meyer, R., Petersen, L.R., Phillips, M., Pinner, R., Popovic, T., Quinn, C.P., Peefhuis, J., Reissman, D., Rosenstein, N., Schuchat, A., Shieh, W.J., Siegal, L., Swerdlow, D.L., Tenover, F.C., Traegar, M., Ward, J.W., Weisfuse, I., Wiersma, S., Yeskey, K., Zaki, S., Ashford, D.A., Perkins, B.A., Ostroff, S., Hughes, J., Fleming, D., Koplan, J.P., Gerberding, and the National Anthrax Investigation Team. (2002). Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8:1019–1028.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jernigan, J.A., Stephens, D.S., Ashford, D.A., Omenaca, C., Topiel, M.S., Galbraith, M., Tapper, M., Fisk, T.L., Zaki, S., Popovic, T., Meyer, R.F., Quinn, C.P., Harper, S.A., Fridkin, S.K., Sejvar, J.J., Shepard, C.W., McConnell, M., Guarner, J., Shieh, W.J., Malecki, J.M., Gerberding, J.L., Hughes, J.M., Perkins, B.A., and members of the Anthrax Bioterrorism Investigation Team. (2001). Bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax: the first 10 cases reported in the United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 7:933–944.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keim, P., Smith, K.L., Keys, C., Takahashi, H., Kurata, T., and Kaufmann, A. (2001). Molecular investigation of the Aum Shinrikyo anthrax release in Kameido, Japan. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39(12):4566–4567.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, F., Hodges, D.R., Mahlandt, B.G., Jones, W.I., Haines, B.W., and Lincoln, R.E. (1962). Anthrax toxin: causative agent in the death of rhesus monkeys. Science. 138:1331–1333.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, F., Walker, J.S., Fitzpatrick, D.F., Lincoln, R.E., Mahlandt, B.G., Jones, W.I. Jr, Dobbs J.P., and Hendrix, K.J. (1966). Pathophysiology of anthrax. J. Infect. Dis. 116:123–138.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klichko, V.I., Miller, J., Wu, A., Popov, S.G., and Alibek, K. (2003). Anaerobic induction of Bacillus anthracis hemolytic activity. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 303:855–862.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knights, E.M. (0000). Anthrax. History Magazine. Accessed online at: http://www.historymagazine.com/anthrax.html.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koshi, G.M., Lalitha, D.J., Chacko, A., and Pulimood, B. (1981). Anthrax meningitis, a rare clinical entity. J Assoc. Phys. Ind. 29:59–62.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kozel, T.R., Murphy, W.J., Brandt, S., Blazar, B.R., Lovchik, J.A., Thorkildson, P., Percival, A., and Lyons, C.R. (2004). mAbs to Bacillus anthracis capsular antigen for immunoprotection in anthrax and detection of antigenemia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101:5042–5047

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krauss, F. (1943). Anthrax appearing primarily in the nose. Arch. Otolaryngol. 37:238–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaForce, F.M., Bumford, F.H., Feeley, J.C., Stokes, S.L., and Snow, D.B. (1969). Epidemiologic study of a fatal case of inhalation anthrax. Arch. Environ. Health. 18:798–805.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg, A.A. (1999). Polyosides (encapsulated bacteria). C.R. Acad. Sci. 322:925–932.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindeque, P.M., and Turnbull, P.C. (1994). Ecology and epidemiology of anthrax in the Etosha National Park, Namibia. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 61:71–83.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Little, S.F., and Ivins, B.E. (1999). Molecular pathogenesis of Bacillus anthracis infection. Microb. Infect. 2:131–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Litusov, N.V., Vasilyev, N.T., Vasilyev, P.G., and Burgasov, P.N. (2002). Pathomorphology of anthrax. Meditsina.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S., Schubert, R.L., Bugge, T.H., and Leppla, S.H. (2003). Anthrax toxin: structures, functions and tumour targeting. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 3:843–853 [review].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Macher, A. (2002). An industry-related outbreak of human anthrax, Massachusetts, 1868. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8:1182.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makino, S.I., Uchida, I., Terakado, N., Sasakawa, C., and Yoshikawa, M. (1989). Molecular characterization and protein analysis of the cap region, which is essential for encapsulation in Bacillus anthracis. J. Bacteriol. 171:722–730.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mangold, T., and Goldberg, J. (1999). Plague Wars: The Terrifying Reality of Biological Warfare. St. Martins Griffin, New York, pp. 19–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mesnage, S., Tosi-Couture, E., Gounon, P., Mock, M., and Fouet, A. (1998). The capsule and S-layer: two independent and yet compatible macromolecular structures in Bacillus anthracis. J. Bacteriol. 180:52–58.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mikesell, P., Ivins, B.E., Ristroph, J.D., Vodkin, M.H., Dreier, T.M., and Leppla, S.H. (1983). Plasmids, Pasteur, and Anthrax. ASM News 49:320–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milne, J.C., and Collier, R.J. (1993). pH-dependent permeabilization of the plasma membrane of mammalian cells by anthrax protective antigen. Mol. Microbiol. 10:647–653.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Milne, J.C., Furlong, D., Hanna, P.C., Wall, J.S., and Collier, R.J. (1994). Anthrax protective antigen forms oligomers during intoxication of mammalian cells. J. Biol. Chem. 269:20607–20612.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moayeri, M., Haines, D., Young, H.A., and Leppla, S.H. (2003). Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin induces TNF-alpha-independent hypoxia-mediated toxicity in mice. J. Clin. Invest. 112:670–682.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mock, M., and Mignot, T. (2003). Anthrax toxins and the host: a story of intimacy. Cell Microbiol. 5:15–23 [review].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mogridge, J., Cunningham, K., and Collier, R.J. (2002). Stoichiometry of anthrax toxin complexes. Biochemistry 41:1079–1082.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norberg, B.K., Schmiterloew, C.G., Bergrahm, B., and Lundstroem, H. (1964). Further pathophysiological investigations into the terminal course of experimental anthrax in the rabbit. Acta. Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 60:108–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Office of Public Health Service Historian — National Library of Medicine. (2001). A Brief History of Anthrax. http://lhncbs.nlm.nih.gov/apdb/phsHistory/resources/anthrax/anthrax02.html.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogata, H., Audic, S., Renesto-Audiffren, P., Fournier, P.E., Barbe, V., Samson, D., Roux, V., Cossart, P., Weissenbach, J., Claverie, J.M., and Raoult, D. (2001). Mechanisms of evolution in Rickettsia conorii and R. prowazekii. Science 293:2093–2098.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okinaka, R.T., Cloud, K., Hampton, O., Hoffmaster, A.R., Hill, K.K., Keim, P., Koehler, T.M., Lamke, G., Kumano, S., Mahillon, J., Manter, D., Martinez, Y., Ricke, D., Svensson, R., and Jackson, P.J. (1999). Sequence and organization of pXO1, the large Bacillus anthracis plasmid harboring the anthrax toxin genes. J. Bacteriol. 181:6509–6515.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pellizzari, R., Guidi-Rontani, C., Vitale, G., Mock, M., and Montecucco, C. (1999). Anthrax lethal factor cleaves MKK3 in macrophages and inhibits the LPS/IFNgamma-induced release of NO and TNFalpha. FEBS Lett. 462:199–204.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pile, J.C., Malone J.D., and Etizen, E.M., et al. (1998). Anthrax as a potential biological warfare agent. Arch. Intern. Med. 158:429–434.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plotkin, S.A., Brachman, P.S., Utell, M., Bumford, F.H., and Atchison, M.M. (2002). An epidemic of inhalation anthrax, the first in the twentieth century: clinical features. Am. J. Med. 112:4–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pluot, M., Vital, C., Aubertin, J., Croix, J.C., Pire, J.C., and Poisot D. (1976). Anthrax meningitis: report of two cases with autopsies. Acta Neuropathol. 36:339–345.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popov, S.G., Villasmil, R., Bernardi, J., Grene, E., Cardwell, J., Popova, T., Wu, A., Alibek, D., Bailey, C., and Alibek, K. (2002a). Effect of Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. FEBS Lett. 527:211–215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popov, S.G., Villasmil, R., Bernardi, J., Grene, E., Cardwell, J., Wu, A., Alibek, D., Bailey, C., and Alibek, K. (2002b). Lethal toxin of Bacillus anthracis causes apoptosis of macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 293:349–55.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramachandran, S., and Natarajan, M. (1968). Tissue response to experimental anthrax of sheep and goats. Indian Vet. J. 45:381–387.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rangel, R.A., and Gonzalez, D.A. (1975). Bacillus anthracis meningitis. Neurology 25:525–530.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ray, K.C., Mesnage, S., Washburn, R., Mock, M., Fouet, A., and Blaser, M. (1998). Complement binding to Bacillus anthracis mutants lacking surface structures. Presented at the 98th Annual ASM General Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Read, T.D., Peterson, S.N., Tourasse, N., Baillie, L.W., Paulsen, I.T., Nelson, K.E., Tettelin, H., Fouts, D.E., Eisen, J.A., Gill, S.R., Holtzapple, E.K., Okstad, O.A., Helgason, E., Rilstone, J., Wu, M., Kolonay, J.F., Beanan, M.J., Dodson, R.J., Brinkac, L.M., Gwinn, M., DeBoy, R.T., Madpu, R., Daugherty, S.C., Durkin, A.S., Haft, D.H., Nelson, W.C., Peterson, J.D., Pop, M., Khouri, H.M., Radune, D., Benton, J.L., Mahamoud, Y., Jiang, L., Hance, I.R., Weidman, J.F., Berry, K.J., Plaut, R.D., Wolf, A.M., Watkins, K.L., Nierman, W.C., Hazen, A., Cline, R., Redmond, C., Thwaite, J.E., White, O., Salzberg, S.L., Thomason, B., Friedlander, A.M., Koehler, T.M., Hanna, P.C., Kolsto, A.B., and Fraser, C.M. (2003). The genome sequence of Bacillus anthracis Ames and comparison to closely related bacteria. Nature 423:81–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Record, B.R., and Wallis, R.G. (1956). Physicochemical examination of polyglutamic acid from Bacillus anthracis grown in vivo. Biochem. J. 63:443–447.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, J.M. (1957). The pathogenesis of anthrax following the administration of spores by the respiratory route. J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 73:485–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roux, V., Bergoin, M., Lamaze, N., and Raoult, D. (1997). Reassessment of the taxonomic position of Rickettsiella grylli. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 47:1255–1257.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rozen’er, L.A. (1948). Anthrax in Humans. State publisher, Moldova, Kishinev.

    Google Scholar 

  • Severn, M. (1976). A fatal case of pulmonary anthrax. Br. Med. J. 27:748.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, L.B., and Galinobskoi, C.E. (1923). Anthrax case via inhalation. clin. med. 4:13–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, H., Keppie, J., and Stanley, J.L. (1955). The chemical basis of the virulence of B. Anthracis. Br. J. Exp. Pathol. 36:460–472.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, H., and Stoner, H.B. (1967). Anthrax toxic complex. Fed Proc. 26:1554–1557.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stephens, R.S., Kalman, S., Lammel, C., Fan, J., Marathe, R., Aravind, L., Mitchell, W., Olinger, L., Tatusov, R.L., Zhao, Q., Koonin, E.V., and Davis, R.W. (1998). Genome sequence of an obligate intracellular pathogen of humans: Chlamydia trachomatis. Science 282:754–759.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suffin, S. (1978). Inhalation anthrax in a home craftsman. Human Pathol. 9:594–597.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swartz, M.N. (2001). Recognition and management of anthrax—an update. N. Engl. J. Med. 345(22):1621–1626.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teacher, J.H., and Glasg, M.D. (1906). Primary intestinal anthrax in man; septicemia; haemorrhagic lepto-meningitis. Lancet 12:1306–1311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorne, C.B. (1993). Bacillus anthracis. In: Sonenshein, A.L., Hoch, J.A., and Losick, R. (eds.), Bacillus subtilis and Other Gram-positive Bacteria. Washington, D.C., ASM, pp. 113–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vessal, K. (1975). Radiological changes in inhalational anthrax. A report of radiological and patological corellations in two cases. Clin. Radiol. 26:471–474.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vitale, G., Pellizzari, R., Recchi, C., Napolitani, G., Mock, M., and Montecucco, C. (1998). Anthrax lethal factor cleaves the N-terminus of MAPKKs and induces tyrosine/threonine phosphorylation of MAPKs in cultured macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 248:706–711.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, J.S., Lincoln, R.E., and Klein, F. (1967). Pathophysiological and biochemical changes in anthrax. Fed Proc. 26:1539–1544.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, T.T., Fellows, P.F., Leighton, T.J., and Lucas, A.H. (2004). Induction of opsonic antibodies to the gamma-D-glutamic acid capsule of Bacillus anthracis by immunization with a synthetic peptidecarrier protein conjugate. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 40:231–237.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Welkos, S.L., Keener, T.J., and Gibbs, P.H. (1986). Differences in susceptibility of inbred mice to Bacillus anthracis. Infect. Immun. 51:795–800.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO Model G for PCR detection of Bacillus anthracis, Standard Operating Procedure. WHO Website. (2004). http://w3.whosea.org/bct/anthrax/modelgf.htm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witkowski, J.A. (2002). The story of anthrax from antiquity to present: a biological weapon of nature and humans. Clin. Dermatol. 20:336–242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zaucha, G.M., Pitt, L.M., Estep, J., Ivins, B.E., and Friedlander, A.M. (1998). The pathology of experimental anthrax in rabbits exposed by inhalation and subcutaneous inoculation. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 122:982–992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B.E., and Zimmerman, D.J. (2003). Killer Germs: Microbes and Diseases that Threaten Humanity. Contemporary Books, New York, p. 219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zwartouw, H.T., and Smith, H. (1956). Polyglutamic acid from Bacillus anthracis grown in vivo: structure and aggressin activity. Biochem. J. 63:437–454.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The National Center for Biodefense, George Mason University, Manassas, VA

    Kenneth Alibek, Catherine Lobanova & Serguei Popov

Authors
  1. Kenneth Alibek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Catherine Lobanova
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Serguei Popov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. St. Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

    I. W. Fong

  2. The National Center for Biodefense, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia

    Kenneth Alibek

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Alibek, K., Lobanova, C., Popov, S. (2005). Anthrax: A Disease and a Weapon. In: Fong, I.W., Alibek, K. (eds) Bioterrorism and Infectious Agents: A New Dilemma for the 21st Century. Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21st Century. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-23685-6_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-23685-6_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-23684-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-387-23685-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation