Conclusion
In summary, systematic observation of young children’s musical behavior reveals a rich and diverse pattern of development and musical competencies. Although development may be faster or slower for particular individuals, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that, with appropriate support, all young children can achieve a degree of mastery in the contemporary musical idioms of the maternal culture. Moreover, a child’s present mastery level is always subject to qualitative change, especially in a supportive environment. The complex interaction between the basic structure of the human intellect and the opportunities provided by the socio-cultural environment determine the nature and extent of musical development in early childhood and on through the lifespan. Observed differences reflect individual developmental “routes” along the socially constructed musical “pathways.”
Keywords
- Musical Experience
- Musical Genre
- Melodic Contour
- Pitch Match
- Vocal Pitch
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Reference
Abrams, R.M. & Gerhardt, K.K. (1997). Some aspects of the foetal sound environment. In Deliege, I. & Sloboda, J. (Eds), Perception and cognition of music (pp. 83–101). Hove: Psychology Press.
Addo, A. (1995). Ghanaian children’s music cultures: A video ethnography of selected singing games. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of British Columbia, Canada.
Agawu, K. (1995). African rhythm. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bamberger, J. (1991). The mind behind the musical ear: How children develop musical intelligence. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Barrett, M. (1997). Invented notations: A view of young children’s musical thinking. Research Studies in Music Education, 8, 2–14.
Barrett, M. (1998). Modal dissonance: An analysis of children’s invented notations of known songs, original songs and instrumental compositions. Proceedings (pp. 110–120). Seventeenth International Society for Music Education Research Seminar 11–17 July, Magaliesberg, South Africa.
Blacking, J. (1976). How musical is man? London: Faber.
Chan-Haftek, L. (1996). Effects of the pitch relationship between text and melody in Cantonese songs on young children’s singing. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Reading, UK.
Costa-Giomi, E. (1996). Mode discrimination abilities of pre-school children. Psychology of Music, 24(2), 184–198.
Crozier, J.B. (1997). Absolute pitch: Practice makes perfect, the earlier the better. Psychology of Music, 25(2), 110–119.
Davidson, J.W., Sloboda, J.A. & Howe, M.J.A. (1995/1996). The role of parents and teachers in the success and failure of instrumental learners. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education. 127, 40–44.
Davidson, L., McKernon, P. & Gardner, H. (1981). The acquisition of song: A developmental approach. Documentary Report of the Ann Arbor Symposium. Reston, VA: MENC.
Davidson, L. (1994). Songsinging by young and old: A developmental approach to music. in R. Aiello & J.A. Sloboda (Eds), Musical perceptions (pp. 99–130). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Davies, C. (1986). Say it till a song comes: Reflections on songs invented by children 3–13. British Journal of Music Education, 3(3), 279–293.
Davies, C. (1992). Listen to my song: A study of songs invented by children aged 5 to 7 years. British Journal of Music Education, 9(1), 19–48.
Davies, C. (1994). The listening teacher: An approach to the collection and study of invented songs of children aged 5 to 7. Musical connections: Tradition and change. (pp. 120–127). Auckland, NZ: International Society for Music Education.
Dowling, W.J. (1984). Development of musical schemata in children’s spontaneous singing. In W.R. Crozier & A.J. Chapman (Eds), Cognitive processes in the perception of art. (pp. 145–163). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Domer, J. & Gromko, J.E. (1996). Qualitative changes in preschoolers’ invented notations following music instruction. Contributions to Music Education, 23, 62–78.
Durrant, C. & Welch, G.F. (1995). Making sense of music. London: Cassell.
Farrell, G. (1997). Indian music and the West. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fash, L. (1990). Changing perceptions of music with reception children. British Journal of Music Education, 7(1), 43–65.
Finnegan, R. (1989). The hidden musicians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Floyd, M. (1996). Promoting traditional music: The Kenyan decision. In M. Floyd. (Ed). World musics in education (pp. 186–206). Aldershot: Scolar Press.
Fox, D.B. (1982). The pitch range and contour of infant vocalizations. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Ohio State University.
Fujita, F. (1990). The intermediate performance between talking and singing — from an observational study of Japanese children’s music activities in nursery schools. In J. Dobbs (Ed), Music education: Facing the future (pp. 140–146). Christchurch, NZ: ISME.
Fyk, J. (1985). Vocal pitch-matching ability in children as a function of sound duration. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 85, 76–89.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. London: Heinemann.
Geschwind, N. (1979). Specializations of the human brain. Scientific American, 241(3), 158–168.
Goetze, M.(1985). Factors affecting accuracy in children’s singing. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, University of Colorado.
Goodnow, J. (1971). Auditory-visual matching: Modality problem or translation problem? Child Development, 42, 1187–1210.
Gromko, J.E. (1994). Children’s invented notations as measures of musical understanding. Psychology of Music, 22(2), 136–147.
Hair, H.I.(1993). Children’s descriptions and representations of music. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 119, 41–48.
Hargreaves, D.J. (1986). The developmental psychology of music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hargreaves, D.J. (1996). The development of artistic and musical competence. In I. Deliege & J. Sloboda (Eds). Musical beginnings (pp. 145–170). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Howe, M.J.A., Davidson, J.W., Moore, D.G. & Sloboda, J.A. (1995). Are there early childhood signs of musical ability? Psychology of Music, 23, 162–176.
Imada, T. (1994). Escaping the historical influences of the West on Japanese music education. Unpublished Masters thesis, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia.
Kalmar, M. (1991). Young children’s self-invented songs: Effects of age and musical experience on the singing improvisation of 4–7 year-olds. Canadian Music Educator: Research Edition, 33, 75–86.
Kemp, A.E. (1996). The musical temperament. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kratus, J. (1989). A time analysis of the compositional processes used by children ages 7 to 11. Journal of Research in Music Education, 37, 5–20.
Kratus, J. (1994). The ways children compose. In H. Lees (Ed), Musical connections: Tradition and change (pp. 128–140). Auckland, N.Z.: ISME.
Lecanuet, J-P. (1996). Prenatal auditory experience. In I. Deliege & J. Sloboda (Eds). Musical beginnings (pp. 3–34). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Levinowitz, L.M. (1989). An investigation of preschool children’s comparative capability to sing songs with and without words. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 100, 14–19.
Littleton, D. (1992). Ecological influences in children’s musical play. In H. Lees (Ed), Music education: Sharing musics of the world (pp. 53–58). Christchurch, N.Z.: ISME.
Mawhinney, T.A. & Cuddy, L.L. (1984). A factor analytic investigation of tone deafness. Unpublished paper, Music Educators National Conference, Chicago.
Mehler, J. & Christophe, A. (1995). Maturation and learning of language in the first year of life. In M.S. Gazzaniga (Ed), The cognitive neurosciences (pp. 943–954). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Miller, L.K. (1989). Musical savants. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Mills, J. (1991). Clapping as an approximation to rhythm. Canadian Music Educator: Research Edition, 33, 131–137.
Minami, Y. & Umezawa, Y. (1990). The situation in which a child sings an original song. In J. Dobbs (Ed). Music education: Facing the future (pp. 131–134). Christchurch, NZ: ISME.
Moog, H. (1976). The musical experience of the preschool child. (trans. C. Clarke). London: Schott.
Nettl, B. (1983). The study of ethnomusicology. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
O’Neill, S. (1996). The influence of ability, effort, motivation and teaching context on achievement during the first year of learning to play a musical instrument. Proceedings, 7th International Seminar of the ISME Early Childhood Commission, Winchester, UK.
Papousek, H. (1996). Musicality in infancy research: Biological and cultural origins of early musicality. In I. Deliege & J. Sloboda (Eds), Musical beginnings (pp. 37–55). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Patel, A.D. & Peretz, I. (1997). Is music autonomous from language? A neuropsychological appraisal. In I. Deliege & J. Sloboda (Eds). Perception and cognition of music (pp. 191–215). Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
Poorman, A. Smith (1996). The Emergence of symbol use: prekindergarten children’s representations of musical sound. Contributions to Music Education, 23, 31–45.
Reimer, B. (1997). Should there be a universal philosophy of music education? International Journal of Music Education, 29, 4–21.
Reis, N.L. (1987). An analysis of the characteristics of infant-child singing expressions: Replication report. The Canadian Journal of Research in Music Education, 29(1), 5–20.
Rutkowski, J. (1987). The effect of restricted song range on kindergarten children’s use of singing voice and developmental music aptitude. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47, 2072A.
Rutkowski, J. (1996). The nature of children’s singing voices: Characteristics and assessment. Proceedings, 7th International Seminar of the ISME Early Childhood Commission, Winchester, UK.
Sergeant, D.C. (1969). Experimental investigation of absolute pitch. Journal of Research in Music Education, 17, 135–143.
Sergeant, D.C. (1994). Towards a specification for poor-pitch singing. In G.F. Welch & T. Murao (Eds), Onchi and singing development (pp. 63–73). London: David Fulton.
Smith, K.C., Cuddy, L.L. & Upitis, R. (1994). Figural and metric understanding of rhythm. Psychology of Music, 22(2), 117–135.
Spender, N. (1987). Psychology of music. In R.L. Gregory (Ed), The Oxford companion to the mind (pp. 499–505). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Swanwick, K. (1991). Further research on the musical development sequence. Psychology of Music, 19(1), 22–32.
Swanwick, K. & Tillman, J. (1986). The sequence of musical development. British Journal of Music Education. 3(3), 305–339.
Thurman, L. & Klitzke, C. (1994). Voiceeducation and health care for young voices. In M.S. Benninger, B.H. Jacobson & A.F. Johnson (Eds), Vocal arts medicine: The care and prevention of professional voice disorders (pp. 226–268). New York: Thieme Medical Publishers.
Thurman, L. & Welch, G.F. (2000). Bodymind and voice: Foundations of voice education. Revised Edition. Iowa City: National Center for Voice and Speech.
Trehub, S.E. & Trainor, L.J. (1993). Listening strategies in infancy: The roots of music and language development. In S. McAdams & E. Bigand (Eds). Thinking in sound. The cognitive psychology of human audition (pp. 278–327). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Trehub, S.E., Schellenberg, G. & Hill, D. (1997). The origins of music perception and cognition: A developmental perspective. In I. Deliege & J. Sloboda (Eds). Perception and cognition of music (pp. 103–128). Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
Unyk, A.M., Trehub, S.E., Trainor, L.J. & Schellenberg, E.G. (1992). Lullabies and simplicity: A cross-cultural perspective. Psychology of Music, 20(1), 15–28.
Van Lancker, D. (1997). Rags to riches: Our increasing appreciation of cognitive and communicative abilities of the human right cerebral hemisphere. Brain and Language, 57(1), 1–11.
Walker, A.R. (1985). Mental imagery and musical concepts; some evidence from the congenitally blind. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education. 85, 229–237.
Walker, A.R. (1994). Will karaoke teach the world to sing in tune? In Welch, G.F. & Murao, T. (Eds) (1994). Onchi and Singing Development (pp. 8–17). London: David Fulton/ASME.
Welch, G.F. (1985a). Variability of practice and knowledge of results as factors in learning to sing in tune. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 85, 238–247.
Welch, G.F.(1985b). A schema theory of how childrenlearn tosing in-tune. Psychologyof Music, 13(1), 3–18.
Welch, G.F. (1986). A developmental view of children’s singing. British Journal of Music Education, 3(3), 295–303.
Welch, G.F. (1988). Observations on the incidence of absolute pitch (AP) ability in the early blind. Psychology of Music. 16(1), 77–80.
Welch, G.F. (1991). Visual metaphors for sound: A study of mental imagery, language and pitch perception in the congenitally blind. Canadian Journal of Research in Music Education. 33, 215–222.
Welch, G.F. (1994a). The assessment of singing. Psychology of Music, 22, 3–19.
Welch, G.F. (1994b). Onchi and Singing Development: Pedagogical Implications. In Welch, G.F. & Murao, T. (Eds). Onchi and singing development (pp. 82–95). London: David Fulton/ASME.
Welch, G.F. (2000). The developing voice. In L. Thurman & G.F. Welch (Eds). Bodymind and voice: Foundations of voice education (pp. 704–717). Iowa City: National Center for Voice and Speech.
Welch, G.F. & Backhouse, J. (1989). Musical potential and behaviour in visually-handicapped children. Journal of Blind Welfare, LXXI (838), 33–36.
Welch, G.F., Rush, C. & Howard, D.M. (1991). A developmental continuum of singing ability: Evidence from a study of five-year-old developing singers. Early Child Development and Care, 69, 107–119.
Welch, G.F., Sergeant, D.C. & White, P. (1996). The singing competences of five-year-old developing singers. Proceedings, Fifteenth International Society for Music Education Research Seminar, 9–15 July, 1994, Miami, USA. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 127, 155–162.
Welch, G.F., Sergeant, D.C. & White, P. (1997). Age, sex and vocal task as factors in singing “in-tune” during the first years of schooling. Proceedings, Sixteenth International Society for Music Education Research Seminar, 15–22 July, 1996, Frascati, Italy. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 133, 153–160.
White, P., Sergeant, D.C. & Welch, G.F. (1996). Some observations on the singing development of five-year-olds. Early Child Development and Care, 118, 27–34.
Wurgler, P. (1990). A perceptual study of vocal registers in the singing voices of children. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, University of Ohio.
Woodward, S.C., Fresen, J., Harrison, V.C. & Coley, N. (1996). The birth of musical language. Proceedings, 7th International Seminar of the ISME Early Childhood Commission, Winchester, UK.
Young, S. (1995). Listening to the music of early childhood. British Journal of Music Education, 12(1), 51–58.
Young, W.T. (1971). An investigation into the singing abilities of kindergarten and first grade children in east Texas. ERIC EDO 69431.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Welch, G.F. (2002). Early Childhood Musical Development. In: Bresler, L., Thompson, C.M. (eds) The Arts in Children’s Lives. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47511-1_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47511-1_10
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-0471-1
Online ISBN: 978-0-306-47511-5
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive