Rareness as an Antipredator Strategy to Reduce Predation Risk for Moose and Caribou

  • A. T. Bergerud
Chapter

Abstract

The densities of moose (Alces alces) and woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus) are low in Canada and Alaska (caribou- -0.03-0.13/km2, moose- -0.1-0.5/km2) in systems where wolves (Canis lupus) are unexploited; hence these ungulates are far below a food carrying capacity (K) of ≥1.5/km2. Cow moose and caribou migrate prior to parturition seeking birth sites to reduce predation risk and show philopatry. This spacing-out results in damping the predation of neonates and can provide a stabilizing recruitment (R s ), where R s equals the annual natural mortality (M) of adults (R = M,λ = 1.00). These stabilizing recruitments at 6–9 months-of-age for moose were ~ 25–26 calves/100 females, and for caribou were 15–16% calves of the population (25–26 calves/100 females). The R s values resulted only when the densities of ungulates were low in systems where wolves were common and fluctuations in R (greater and less than R s ) occurred around a mean density defined as the stabilizing density (D s ). A phase plane analysis of the isocline of the abundance of wolves on prey was oblique, and when moose were the prey, was tangent to the moose isocline in the range of 0.2–.5/km2. Such predator-prey interactions should result in low stable equilibria for moose populations with reduced chances for extinctions. However, for caribou coexisting with moose populations, extinction is a distinct possibility, especially in isolated populations where recolonization is precluded.

Keywords

Wildlife Management Wolf Number Prey Biomass Rangifer Tarandus Phase Plane Analysis 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Literature Cited

  1. Addison, E. M., M. L. Wilton, R. F. McLaughlin, and M. E. Buss. 1985. Trends in the natality and calf mortality in southcentral Ontario. Alces 21: 1–16.Google Scholar
  2. Arditi, R., and A. A. Berryman. 1991. The biological control paradox. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 66: 32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Ballard, W. B., and D. G. Larsen. 1987. Implications of predator-prey relationships to moose management. Swedish Wildlife Research Supplement 1: 581–602.Google Scholar
  4. Ballard, W. B., J. S. Whitman, and D. J. Reed. 1991. Population dynamics of moose in south-central Alaska. Wildlife Monographs 114.Google Scholar
  5. Bergerud, A. T. 1967. Management of Labrador caribou. Journal of Wildlife Management 31: 621–642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Bergerud, A. T. 1974a. The decline of caribou in North America following settlement Journal of Wildlife Management 38: 757–770.Google Scholar
  7. Bergerud, A. T. 1974b. The role of the environment in the aggregation, movement, and disturbance behaviour of caribou. Pages 552–584 in V. Geist, and F. Walther, editors. The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges, Switzerland.Google Scholar
  8. Bergerud, A. T. 1985. Antipredator strategies of caribou: dispersion along shorelines. Canadian Journal of Zoology 63: 1324–1329.Google Scholar
  9. Bergerud, A. T. 1988a. Caribou, wolves and man. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 3: 68–72.Google Scholar
  10. Bergerud, A. T. 1988b. Increasing the number of grouse. Pages 686–731 in A. T. Bergerud, and M. Gratson, editors. Adaptive strategies and population ecology of northern grouse. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.Google Scholar
  11. Bergerud, A. T. 1990. Rareness as an antipredator strategy to reduce predation risk. Pages 15–25 in S. Myrberget, editor. Translations of the XIX International Union of Game Biologists Congress, Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim, Norway.Google Scholar
  12. Bergerud, A. T., H. E. Butler, and D. R. Miller. 1984. Antipredator tactics of caribou: dispersion in mountains. Canadian Journal of Zoology 65: 1566–1575.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Bergerud, A. T., and J. P. Elliot. 1986. Dynamics of caribou and wolves in northern British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Zoology 64: 1515–1529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Bergerud, A. T., and J. P. Elliot. 1990. A review of the dynamics of ungulates and wolves in northeastern British Columbia. Unpublished Report.Google Scholar
  15. Bergerud, A. T., R. Ferguson, and H. E. Butler. 1990. Spring migration and dispersion of woodland caribou at calving. Animal Behaviour 39: 360–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Bergerud, A. T., and F. Manuel. 1969. Aerial census of moose in central Newfoundland. Journal of Wildlife Management 33: 910–916.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Bergerud, A. T., M. J. Nolan, K. Curnew, and W. E. Mercer. 1983a. Growth of the Avalon Peninsula Newfoundland caribou herd. Journal of Wildlife Management 47: 989–998.Google Scholar
  18. Bergerud, A. T., and R. E. Page. 1987. Displacement and dispersion of parturient caribou as calving tactics. Canadian Journal of Zoology 65: 1597–1606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Bergerud, A. T., and J. B. Snider. 1988. Predation in the dynamics of moose populations: a reply. Journal of Wildlife Management 52: 559–564.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Bergerud, A. T., W. Wyett, and J. B. Snider. 1983b. The role of wolf predation in limiting a moose population. Journal of Wildlife Management 9: 977–988.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Bjorge, R. R., and J. R. Gunson. 1989. Wolf, Canis lupus, population characteristics and prey relationships near Simonette River, Alberta. Canadian Field-Naturalist 103: 327–334.Google Scholar
  22. Boertje, R. D., W. C. Gasaway, D. V. Grangaard, and D. G. Kellyhouse. 1988. Predation on moose and caribou by radio-collared grizzly bears in east-central Alaska. Canadian Journal of Zoology 66: 2492–2499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Carbyn, L. N. 1983. Wolf predation of elk in Riding National Park, Manitoba. Journal of Wildlife Management 47: 963–976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Carbyn, L. N. 1989. Wolves in Riding Mountain National Park: ecosystem protection and thoughts on a holistic conservation strategy. Pages 82–96 in D. Seip, S. Pettigrew, and R. Archibald, editors. Proceedings of the wolf-prey dynamics and management conference. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Wildlife Working Report WR-40, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.Google Scholar
  25. Caughley, G. 1970. Eruption of ungulate populations, with emphasis on the Himalayan thar in New Zealand. Ecology 51: 53–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Crete, M. 1987. The impact of sport hunting on North American moose. Swedish Wildlife Research Supplement 1: 553–563.Google Scholar
  27. Crete, M. 1989. Approximation of K carrying capacity of moose in eastern Quebec. Canadian Journal of Zoology 67: 373–380.Google Scholar
  28. Crete, M., and H. Jolicoeur. 1987. Impact of wolf and black bear removal on cow:calf ratio and moose density in southwest Quebec. Alces 23: 61–88.Google Scholar
  29. Davis, J., and P. Valkenburg. 1991. A review of caribou population dynamics in Alaska emphasizing limiting factors, theory, and management implications. Pages 184–207 in 4th North American caribou workshop. Cheno Hot Springs, Alaska, USA.Google Scholar
  30. Davis, J., P. Valkenburg, and D. J. Reed. 1988. Mortality of Delta Herd caribou to 24 months of age. Pages 38–51 in R. D. Cameron, and J. L. Davis, editors. 3rd North American caribou workshop. Alaska Department of Fish and Game Wildlife Technical Bulletin 8, Juneau, Alaska, USA.Google Scholar
  31. Edwards, J. 1983. Diet shifts in moose due to predation avoidance. Oecologia 60: 185–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Farnell, R., and J. McDonald. 1988. The influence of wolf predation on caribou mortality in Yukon’s Finlayson caribou herd. Pages 52–70 in R. D. Cameron, and J. L. Davis, editors. 3rd North American caribou workshop. Alaska Department of Fish and Game Wildlife Technical Bulletin 8, Juneau, Alaska, USA.Google Scholar
  33. Ferguson, S. H., A. T. Bergerud, and R. Ferguson. 1988. Prédation risk and habitat selection in the persistence of a remnant caribou population. Oecologia 76: 236–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Fuller, T. K. 1989. Population dynamics of wolves in north-central Minnesota. Wildlife Monographs 105.Google Scholar
  35. Gasaway, W. C, R. D. Boertje, D. V. Grangaard, D. G. Kellyhouse, R. O. Stephenson, and D. G. Larsen. 1992. The role of predation in limiting moose at low densities in Alaska and Yukon and implications for conservation. Wildlife Monographs 120.Google Scholar
  36. Gasaway, W. C, S. D. Dubois, D. J. Reed, and S. J. Harbo. 1986. Estimating moose population parameters from aerial surveys. Biological Paper 22, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA.Google Scholar
  37. Gasaway, W. C, R. O. Stephenson, J. L. Davis, P. E. K. Shepherd, and O. E. Burris. 1983. Interrelationships of wolves, prey, and man in interior Alaska. Wildlife Monographs 84.Google Scholar
  38. Hauge, T. M., and L. B. Keith. 1981. Dynamics of moose populations in northeastern Alberta. Journal of Wildlife Management45: 573–597.Google Scholar
  39. Hayes, R., A. Baer, R. Farnell, R. Sumanik, and D. Larsen. 1989. Wolf/prey studies in the Yukon Territory, 1983’88. Pages 70–81 in D. Seip, S. Pettigrew, and R. Archibald, editors. Proceedings of the wolf-prey dynamics and management conference. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Wildlife Working Report WR-40, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.Google Scholar
  40. Heard, D. C, and T. M. Williams. 1991. Den distribution of wolves on migratory barren-ground ranges in the NW Territories. Pages 249–250 in C. Butler, and S. P. Mahoney, editors. 4th North American caribou workshop. St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.Google Scholar
  41. Hearn, B. J., and S. N. Luttich. 1987. Status and history of the Mealy Mountain caribou herd. Internal Report 4106, Newfoundland and Labrador Wildlife Division, St. John’’s, Newfoundland, Canada.Google Scholar
  42. Keith, L. B. 1983. Population dynamics of wolves. Pages 66–77 in L. N. Carbyn, editor. Wolves in Canada and Alaska. Canadian Wildlife Service Report 45, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.Google Scholar
  43. Larsen, D. G., D. A. Gauthier, and R. L. Market. 1989a. Causes and rates of moose (Alces alces) calf mortality. Journal of Wildlife Management 53: 548–557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Larsen, D. G., D. A. Gauthier, R. L. Markel, and R. D. Hayes. 1989b. Limiting factors on moose population growth in southwest Yukon. Department of Renewable Resources, Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada.Google Scholar
  45. Mercer, E., S. Mahoney, E. Curnew, and C. Finlay. 1985. Distribution and abundance of insular Newfoundland caribou and the effects of human activities. Pages 15–32 in 2nd North American caribou workshop. Val Morin, Quebec, Canada.Google Scholar
  46. Messier, F. 1991. The significance of limiting and regulating factors on the demography of moose and white-tailed deer. Journal of Animal Ecology 60: 377–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Messier, F., and M. Crete. 1985. Moose-wolf dynamics and the natural regulation of moose populations. Oecologia 65: 503–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Messier, F., J. Huot, D. LeHenaff, and S. Luttich. 1988. Demography of the George River caribou herd: evidence of population regulation by forage exploitation and range expansion. Arctic 41: 279–287.Google Scholar
  49. Newsome, A. 1990. The control of vertebrate pests by vertebrate predators. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5: 187–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Page, C. W., L. E. Stenzel, D. W. Winkler, and C. E. Swarth. 1983. Spacing out at Mono Lake: breeding success, nest density and predation in the snowy plover. Auk 100: 13–24.Google Scholar
  51. Page, R. E. 1989. The inverted pyramid: ecosystem dynamics of wolves and moose on Isle Royale. Dissertation. Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, USA.Google Scholar
  52. Peterson, R. O. 1977. Wolf ecology and prey relationships on Isle Royale. U. S. National Park Service Scientific Monographs 11, Washington, D. C, USA.Google Scholar
  53. Peterson, R. O., and R. E. Page. 1988. The rise and fall of Isle Royale wolves, 1975’1986. Journal of Mammalogy 69: 89–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Peterson, R. O., R. E. Page, and K. M. Dodge. 1984. Wolves, moose, and the allometry of population cycles. Science 224: 1350–1352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Rosenzweig, M. L., and R. H. MacArthur. 1963. A graphical representation and stability conditions of predator-prey interactions. American Naturalist 97: 209–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Skogland, T. 1985. The effects of density-dependent resource limitations on the demography of wild reindeer. Journal of Animal Ecology 54: 359–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Skoog, R. O. 1968. Ecology of the caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) in Alaska. Dissertation. University of California, Berkeley, California, USA.Google Scholar
  58. Wolfe, M. L. 1977. Mortality patterns in the Isle Royale moose population. American Midland Naturalist 97: 267–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd 1992

Authors and Affiliations

  • A. T. Bergerud
    • 1
  1. 1.Biology DepartmentUniversity of VictoriaVictoriaCanada

Personalised recommendations