Urinary Calculus

  • Douglas E. Busby
Chapter

Abstract

Many authors have postulated that bone will undergo partial reabsorption in the weightless environment [20, 25, 30, 42, 58, 62, 71]. They have also thought that the resulting excessive excretion of the products of bone reabsorption might be conducive to urinary calculus formation. Accordingly, it is thought necessary to consider urinary calculus a potential medical problem of prolonged space missions until appropriate studies in space prove otherwise. This chapter presents information considered pertinent to the occurrence of urinary calculus in space.

Keywords

Bone Reabsorption Renal Calculus Urinary Calculus Calculus Formation Excessive Bone Reabsorption 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. 1.
    Abramson, A. S.: 1948, ‘Bone Disturbances in Injuries to Spinal Cord and Cauda Equina (Paraplegia); Their Prevention by Ambulation’, J. Bone Joint Surg. 30-A, 982–987.Google Scholar
  2. 2.
    Anderson, C.K., Hodgkinson, A., and Pyrah, L.N.: 1961, ‘Renal Calcification, Calculus Formation, and the Urinary Excretion of Calcium’, Lancet 2, 454–456.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Baker, R. and Connelly, J.P.: 1956, ‘Bilateral and Recurrent Renal Calculi; Evidence Indicating Renal Collagen Abnormality and Results of Salicylate Therapy’, J.A.M.A. 160, 1106–1110.Google Scholar
  4. 4.
    Baker, R. and Sison, F.: 1954, ‘Demonstration of Altered Tissue Mucopolysaccharides in Renal Calculus Disease by Selective Staining Techniques’, J. Urol. 72, 1032–1045.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Beckman, H.: 1958, Drugs - Their Natural Action and Use. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, pp. 546–547.Google Scholar
  6. 6.
    Bird, E.D.: 1965, Personal Communication. School of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.Google Scholar
  7. 7.
    Bird, E.D. and Thomas, W.C., Jr.: 1963, ‘Effect of Various Metals on Mineralization in vitro’ Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 112, 640–643.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Birkhead, N.C., Blizzard, J.J., Daly, J.W., et al.: 1964, Cardiodynamic and Metabolic Effects of Prolonged Bed Rest with Daily Recumbent or Sitting Exercise and with Sitting Inactivity. WADD-AMRL-TDR-64-61, U.S. Air Force Aeromed. Res. Lab., Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.Google Scholar
  9. 9.
    Boothby, W.M. and Adams, M.: 1934, The Occurrence of Citric Acid in Urine and Body Fluids’, Amer. J. Physiol. 107, 471–479.Google Scholar
  10. 10.
    Boyce, W.H.: 1966, ‘Urinary Calculi’, J. Florida Med. Ass. 53, 128–129, 132.Google Scholar
  11. 11.
    Boyce, W.H.: 1966, Personal Communication. The Bowman Gray School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, N.C.Google Scholar
  12. 12.
    Boyce, W.H. and Garvey, F.K.: 1956, ‘The Amount and Nature of the Organic Matrix in Urinary Calculi: A Review’, J. Urol. 76, 213–227.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Boyce, W.H., Garvey, F.K., and Goven, C.E., ‘Abnormalities of Calcium Metabolism in Patients with “Idiopathic” Urinary Calculi. Effect of Oral Administration of Sodium Phytate’, J.A.M.A. 166, 1577–1583.Google Scholar
  14. 14.
    Boyce, W.H., Garvey, F.K., and Norfleet, C.M.: 1954, ‘Ion-Binding Properties of Electrophoretically Homogeneous Mucoproteins of Urine in Normal Subjects and in Patients with Renal Calculus Disease’, J. Urol. 72, 1019–1031.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Boyce, W.H., Garvey, F.K., and Norfleet, C.M.: 1954, ‘Proteins and other Biocolloids of the Urine in Health and in Calculous Disease; Electrophoretic Studies at pH 4.5 and 8.6 of Total Components Soluble in Molar Sodium Chloride’, J. Clin. Invest. 33, 1287–1297.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Boyce, W.H., Garvey, F.K., and Norfleet, C.M.: 1954, ‘The Turbidity of Urine in the Normal and in Patients with Urinary Calculi’, Exp. Med. Surg. 12, 450–459.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Boyce, W.H. and King, J.S., Jr.: 1959, ‘Effects of High Calcium Intakes on Urine in Human Beings’, Fed. Proc. 18, 1102–1111.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Boyce, W.H., Pool, C.S., Meochan, I., and King, J.S., Jr.: 1958, ‘Organic Matrix of Urinary Calculi: Microradiographic Comparison of Crystalline Structure with Microscopic and Histochemical Studies’, Acta Radiol. 50, 543–560.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Boyce, W.H. and Sulkin, N.M.: 1956, ‘Biocolloids of the Urine in Health and in Calculous Disease. Ill: The Mucoprotein Matrix of Urinary Calculi’, J. Clin. Invest. 35, 1067–1079.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Brannon, E.W., Rockwood, C.A., Jr., and Potts, P.: 1963, ‘The Influence of Specific Exercises in the Prevention of Debilitating Musculoskeletal Disorders; Implication in Physiological Conditioning for Prolonged Weightlessness’, Aerospace Med. 34, 900–906.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Butt, A.J.: 1952, ‘Role of the Protective Urinary Colloids in the Prevention of Renal Lithiasis’, J. Urol. 67, 450–459.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Carr, R.J.: 1954, ’A New Theory on the Formation of Renal Calculi’, Brit. J. Urol. 26, 105–117.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Chute, R.: 1954, ‘Symposium on Specific Methods of Treatment; the Medical Management of Urinary Lithiasis’, Med. Clin. N. Amer. 38, 1461–1474.Google Scholar
  24. 24.
    Clark, I. and Bassett, C.A.L.: 1962, ‘The Amelioration of Hypervitaminosis D in Rats with Vitamin A’, J. Exper. Med. 115, 147–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Cockett, A.T.K., Beehler, C.C., and Roberts, J.E.: 1962, ‘Astronautic Urolithiasis: A Potential Hazard During Prolonged Weightlessness in Space Travel’, J. Urol. 88, 542–544.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Conway, N.S., Maitland, A.I.L., and Rennie, J.B.: 1949, ‘The Urinary Citrate Excretion in Patients with Renal Calculi’, Brit. J. Urol. 21, 30–38.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Cordonnier, J.J. and Talbot, B.S.: 1948, ‘The Effect of the Injestion of Sodium Acid Phosphate on Urinary Calcium in Recumbency’, J. Urol. 60, 316–320.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Deitrick, J.E., Whedon, G.D., and Shorr, E.: 1948, ‘Effects of Immobilization Upon Various Metabolic and Physiologic Functions of Normal Men’, Amer. J. Med. 4, 3–36.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Dent, C.E., Harper, C.M., and Parfitt, A.M.: 1964, ‘The Effect of Cellulose Phosphate on Calcium Metabolism in Patients with Hypercalciuria’, Clin. Sci. 27, 417–425.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Digiovanni, C., Jr. and Chambers, R.M.: 1964, ‘Physiologic and Psychologic Aspects of the Gravity Spectrum’, New Eng. J. Med. 270, 35–41, 88–94, 134–139.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Dimare, J.R., Fish, S.R., Harper, J.M., and Politano, V.A.: 1966, ‘Residual Urine of Normal Male Subjects’, J. Urol. 96, 180–181.Google Scholar
  32. 32.
    Elliot, J.S.: 1954, ‘Vitamin A and Urolithiasis: A Review’, Calif. Med. 80, 462–463.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Elliot, J. S.: 1965, ‘Urinary Calculus Disease’, Surg. Clin. N. Amer. 45, 1393–1404.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Elliot, J. S., Quaide, W. L., Sharp, R. F., and Lewis, L.: 1958, ‘Mineralogical Studies of Urine: The Relationship of Apatite, Brushite and Struvite to Urinary pH’, J. Urol. 80, 269–271.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Elliot, J.S., Sharp, R.F., and Lewis, L.: 1959, ‘The Solubility of Struvite in Urine’, J. Urol 81, 366–368.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Elliot, J. S., Todd, H. E., and Lewis, L.: 1961, ‘Some Aspects of Calcium Phosphate Solubility’, J. Urol. 85, 428–431.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Ferguson, C.: 1938, ‘A Comparison of the Colloidal Protective Values of the Urines from “Stone Formers” and Normal Urines’, J. Urol. 40, 672–674.Google Scholar
  38. 38.
    Fett, H.C. and Kane, J.T.: 1946, ‘Urinary Calculi in Recumbent Fracture Patients’, Amer. J. Surg. 71, 441–449.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Fleisch, H.: 1965, ‘Some New Concepts on the Pathogenesis and the Treatment of Urolithiasis’, Urol. Int. 19, 372–389.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Flocks, R.H. and Bush, J.: 1960, ‘Recumbency Calculi’, in Treatment of Urinary Lithiasis (ed. by A.J. Butt ). Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, pp. 308–323.Google Scholar
  41. 41.
    Frazier, T.H.: 1966, ‘Etiology and Incidence of Renal Stones’, J. Florida Med. Ass. 53, 115–116.Google Scholar
  42. 42.
    Gaume, J.G.: 1962, The Biological Effects and Implications of Weightlessness MAR-R-62-4, Martin Company, Denver, Colo.Google Scholar
  43. 43.
    Gershoff, S.N.: 1964, ‘The Formation of Urinary Stones’, Metabolism 13, 875–887.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Hastings, A.B., McLean, F.C., Eichelberger, L., et al.: 1934, ‘The Ionization of Calcium, Magnesium and Strontium Citrates’, J. Biol. Chem. 107, 351–370.Google Scholar
  45. 45.
    Henneman, P.H., Carroll, E.L., and Albright, F.: 1956, ‘The Suppression of Urinary Calcium and Magnesium by Oral Sodium Phytate: A Preliminary Report’, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 64, 343–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Higgins, C.C.: 1935, ‘Production and Solution of Urinary Calculi; Experimental and Clinical Studies’, J.A.M.A. 104, 1296–1299.Google Scholar
  47. 47.
    Hinman, F. Jr.: 1964, ‘The Urinary System: Calculous Disease’, in Christopher’s Textbook of Surgery (ed. by L. Davis). W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Vol. XXII, pp. 863–870.Google Scholar
  48. 48.
    Hodgkinson, A.: 1962, ‘Citric Acid Excretion in Normal Adults and in Patients with Renal Calculus’, Clin. Sci. 23, 203–212.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Hodgkinson, A. and Pyrah, L.N.: 1958, ‘The Urinary Excretion of Calcium and Inorganic Phosphate in 344 Patients with Calcium Stone of Renal Origin’, Brit. J. Surg. 46, 10–18.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Holt, C.L.: 1963, ‘Urinary Calculosis: Aeromedical Implications of Current Concepts’, Aerospace Med. 34, 392–400.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Howard, J.E., ‘Urinary Stone’, Canad. Med. Ass. J. 86, 1001–1007.Google Scholar
  52. 52.
    Howard, J.E., Parson, W., and Bigham, R.S., Jr.: 1945, ‘Studies on Patients Convalescent from Fracture; Urinary Excretion of Calcium and Phosphorus’, Bull. Hopkins Hosp. 77, 291–313.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Kimbrough, J.C. and Denslow, J. C.: 1949, ‘Urinary Tract Calculi in Recumbent Patients’, J. Urol. 61, 837–852.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Kissin, B. and Locks, M.O.: 1941, ‘Urinary Citrates in Calcium Urolithiasis’, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 46, 216–218.Google Scholar
  55. 55.
    Kohler, F.P.: 1961, ‘Asymptomatic Upper Urinary Tract Lithiasis in Flying Personnel’, J. Urol. 86, 370–372.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Kuyper, A.C. and Mattill, H.A.: 1933, ‘Some Aspects of Citric Acid Metabolism’, J. Biol. Chem. 103, 51–60.Google Scholar
  57. 57.
    Lapides, J.: 1960, ‘Effect of Drugs on Ureteral Innervation and Their Role in Management of Ureteral Stone’, in Treatment of Urinary Lithiasis (ed. by J. Butt ). Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, pp. 244–245.Google Scholar
  58. 58.
    Lawton, R.W.: 1962, ‘Physiological Considerations Relevant to the Problem of Prolonged Weightlessness’, Astronautical Science Review 4, 11–38.Google Scholar
  59. 59.
    Leadbetter, W.F. and Engster, H.C.: 1945, ‘The Problem of Renal Lithiasis in Convalescent Patients’, J. Urol. 53, 269–281.Google Scholar
  60. 60.
    Litin, R.B., Diessner, G.R., and Keating, F.R., Jr.: 1961, ‘Urinary Excretion of Calcium in Patients with Renal Lithiasis’, J. Urol. 86, 17–23.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Lyon, E.S. and Vermeulen, C. W.: 1965, ‘Crystallization Concepts and Calculogenesis: Observations on Artificial Oxalate Concretions’, Invest. Urol. 3, 309–320.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    McCally, M. and Lawton, R. W.: 1963, The Pathophysiology of Disuse and the Problem of Prolonged Weightlessness: A Review. WADD-AMRL-TDR-63-3, U.S. Air Force Aeromed. Res. Lab., Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.Google Scholar
  63. 63.
    McIntosh, H. W. and Seraglia, M.: 1963, ‘Urinary Excretion of Calcium and Citrate in Normal Individuals and Stone Formers with Variation in Calcium Intake’, Canad. Med. Ass. J. 89, 1242–1243.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Mackenzie, A. R.: 1960, ‘Acetazolamide-Induced Renal Stone’, J. Urol. 84, 453–455.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Marshall, V. F.: 1960, ‘The Shorr Regimen for the Prevention of Urinary Calculi of the Phosphatic Type’, in Treatment of Urinary Lithiasis (ed. by A.J. Butt ). Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, pp. 333–343.Google Scholar
  66. 66.
    Marshall, V.F. and Green, J. L.: 1952, ‘Aluminium Gels with Constant Phosphorus Intake for the Control of Renal Phosphatic Calculi’, J. Urol. 67, 611–622.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Melick, R. A. and Henneman, P. H.: 1958, ‘Clinical and Laboratory Studies of 207 Consecutive Patients in a Kidney-Stone Clinic’, New Eng. J. Med. 259, 307–314.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Meyer, J.: 1929, ‘Uber die Ausfallung von Sedimenten und die Bildung von Konkrementen in den Harnwegen’, Ztschr. klin. Med. III, 613–687.Google Scholar
  69. 69.
    Mitchell, J. P.: 1961, ‘The Etiology and Treatment of Genito-Urinary Calculi’, Practitioner 186, 438–444.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Mukai, T. and Howard, J. E.: 1963, ‘Some Observations on the Calcification of Rachitic Cartilage by Urine. One Difference Between “Good” and “Evil” Urines, Dependent Upon Content of Magnesium’, Bull. Hopkins Hosp. 112, 279–290.Google Scholar
  71. 71.
    Neuman, W.F.: 1963, Possible Effects of Weightlessness on Calcium Metabolism in Man. UR-622, The University of Rochester, Atomic Energy Project, Rochester, N.Y.Google Scholar
  72. 72.
    Nungesser, W.C.: 1965, Factors Influencing the Renal Regulation of Calcium-Implications of Prolonged Weightlessness. AF-SAM-Rev-2-65, U.S. Air Force Sch. Aerospace Med., Brooks AFB, Texas.Google Scholar
  73. 73.
    Plank, L.E.: 1965, Personal Communication. Lovelace Clinic, Albuquerque, N.M.Google Scholar
  74. 74.
    Plum, F. and Dunning, M.F.: 1958, ‘Amelioration of Hypercalciuria Following Poliomyelitis by 17-ethyl, 19-nortestosteron (Nilevar)’, J. Clin. Endocr. 18, 860–871.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Prince, C.L., Scardino, P.L., and Wolan, C.T.: 1956, ‘The Effect of Temperature, Humidity and Dehydration on the Formation of Renal Calculi’, J. Urol. 75, 209–215.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Pulvertoft, R.G.: 1939, ‘Nephrolithiasis Occurring in Recumbency’, J. Bone Joint Surg. 21, 559–575.Google Scholar
  77. 77.
    Ramalingaswami, V. and Aurora, A. L.: 1961, ‘Nutritional Aspects of Calculus Disease of the Urinary Tract’, Fed. Proc. 20, Suppl. 7–10, 31–322.Google Scholar
  78. 78.
    Randall, A.: 1940, ‘Papillary Pathology as a Precursor of Primary Renal Calculus’, J. Urol. 44, 580–589.Google Scholar
  79. 79.
    Russell, R.G.G., Edwards, N.A., and Hodgkinson, A.: 1964, ‘Urinary Pyrophosphate and Urolithiasis’, Lancet 1, 1446.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Sandegard, E.: 1956, ‘Prognosis of Stone in the Ureter’, Acta Chir. Scand. 219, 1–67.Google Scholar
  81. 81.
    Sandegard, E.: 1958, ‘The Results of Expectant Treatment of Ureterolithiasis: Follow-up Study of Kidney Function and Recurrences’, Acta Chir. Scand. 116, 44–53.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Schreiner, G. E.: 1963, ‘Miscellaneous Renal Disorders’, in Cecil-Loeb Textbook of Medicine (ed. by P.B. Beeson and W. McDermott ). W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, pp. 859–865.Google Scholar
  83. 83.
    Schuck, C.: 1934, ‘Urinary Excretion of Citric Acid. II: Effect of Ingestion of Citric Acid, Sodium Citrate and Sodium Bicarbonate’, J. Nutr. 7, 691–700.Google Scholar
  84. 84.
    Shands, A.R., Jr.: 1952, Handbook of Orthopedic Surgery. C. V. Mosby Co., St. Louis, 4th ed., pp. 76–77.Google Scholar
  85. 85.
    Shorr, E., Almy, T.P., Sloan, M.H., et al.: 1942, ‘The Relation Between the Urinary Excretion of Citric Acid and Calcium; Its Implications for Urinary Calcium Stone Formation’, Science 96, 587–588.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Shorr, E. and Carter, A.C: 1950, ‘Aluminium Gels in the Management of Renal Phosphatic Calculi’, J.A.M.A. 144, 1549–1556.Google Scholar
  87. 87.
    Snapper, I. and Gechman, E.: 1960, ‘Medical Management of Renal Calculus Disease Due to Abnormal Calcium and Phosphorus Excretion’, in Treatment of Urinary Lithiasis (ed. by A.J. Butt ). Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, pp. 270–293.Google Scholar
  88. 88.
    Sutherland, J.W.: 1954, ‘Recurrence Following Operations for Upper Urinary Tract Stone’, Brit. J. Urol. 26, 22–45.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Thomas, W.C., Jr., Bird, E.D., and Tomita, A.: 1963, ‘Some Concepts Concerning the Genesis of Urinary Calculi’, J. Urol. 90, 521 - 526.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Thomas, W.C., Jr. and Howard, J.E.: 1959, ‘Studies on the Mineralizing Propensity of Urine from Patients with and without Renal Calculi’, Trans. Ass. Amer. Physicians 72, 181.Google Scholar
  91. 91.
    Thompson, A.B. and Graybiel, A.: 1963, ‘Effects of Long Term Weightlessness and Requirements for Artificial Gravity in Manned Space Systems’, Presented at 20th Aerospace Medical Panel Meeting, Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Athens, Greece, July 5–12.Google Scholar
  92. 92.
    Vallbona, C, Vogt, F.B., Cardus, D., et al.: 1964, The Effect of Bedrest on Various Parameters of Physiological Function. Part I: Review of the Literature on the Physiological Effects of Immobilization. NASA-CR-171, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
  93. 93.
    Vermeulen, C.W., Ellis, J.E., and Hsu, T.: 1966, ‘Experimental Observations on the Pathogenesis of Urinary Calculi’, J. Urol. 95, 681–690.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Vermeulen, C.W., Lyon, E.S., and Gill, W.B.: 1964, ‘Artificial Urinary Concretions’, Invest. Urol. 1, 370–386.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Vermeulen, C.W., Lyon, E.S., and Miller, G.H.: 1958, ‘Calcium Phosphate Solubility in Urine as Measured by a Precipitation Test: Experimental Urolithiasis XIII’, J. Urol. 79, 596–606.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Vogt, F.B., Mach, P.B., Beasley, W.G., et al.: 1965, The Effect of Bedrest on Various Para¬meters of Physiological Function. Part XII: The Effect of Bedrest on Bone Mass and Calcium Balance. NASA-CR-182, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
  97. 97.
    Ward, J.E., Hawkins, W.R., and Stallings, H.D.: 1959, Physiologic Response to Weightlessness: Initiation of Micturition. AF-SAM-59-35, U.S. Air Force Sch. Aviation Med., Brooks AFB, Texas.Google Scholar
  98. 98.
    Wax, S.H. and Frank, I.N.: 1965, ‘A Retrospective Study of Upper Urinary Tract Calculi’, J. Urol. 94, 28–32.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Webster, R.N.: 1966, ‘Diagnosis of Stone Disease’, J. Florida Med. Ass. 53, 116–117.Google Scholar
  100. 100.
    Whedon, G.D.: 1960, ‘Osteoporosis: Atrophy of Disuse’, in Bone as a Tissue (ed. by K. Rodahl, J.T. Nicholson, and E.M. Brown ). McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York.Google Scholar
  101. 101.
    Whedon, G.D., Deitrick, J.E., and Shorr, E.: 1949, ‘Modification of the Effects of Immobilization Upon Metabolic and Physiologic Functions of Normal Men by the Use of an Oscillating Bed’, Amer. J. Med. 6, 684–711.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Whedon, G.D. and Shorr, E.J.: 1957, ‘Metabolic Studies in Paralytic Acute Anterior Poliomyelitis. I: Alterations in Nitrogen and Creatine Metabolism. II: Alterations in Calcium and Phosphorus Metabolism. Ill: Metabolic and Circulatory Effects of the Slowly Oscillating Bed. IV: Effects of Testosterone Propionate and Estradiol Benzoate on Calcium, Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Creatine, and Electrolyte Metabolism’, J. Clin. Invest. 36, 942–1033.Google Scholar
  103. 103.
    Wolff, J., cited by Shands, A.R. (see ref. 84).Google Scholar
  104. 104.
    Wyse, D. M. and Pattee, C.J.: 1954, ‘Effect of Oscillating Bed and Tilt Table on Calcium, Phosphorus and Nitrogen Metabolism in Paraplegia’, Amer. J. Med. 17, 645–666.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Yarbro, C.L.: 1956, ‘The Influence of the Diet on Urinary Citrate Excretion’, J. Urol. 75, 216–222.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Yarbro, C.L.: 1958, ‘Studies on the Solubility of Tricalcium Phosphate in Urine. IV: Effects of Citrate’, J. Urol 80, 383–387.PubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland 1968

Authors and Affiliations

  • Douglas E. Busby
    • 1
  1. 1.The Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and ResearchAlbuquerqueUSA

Personalised recommendations