The Dilemma of Using Fertilizer to Power the Green Revolution in Sub-Saharan Africa

Conference paper
First Online:

Abstract

Agriculture in over 84% of world farmlands is rainfed but yields just over half of the crops produced. In East Africa 60% of the landmass is arid and semi-arid land (ASAL), where rainfall is inadequate for arable agriculture. The ASAL environment is harsh. Rainfall is low, unreliable and bimodal, and the seasons have unequal production potential. In Kenya, the short rains contribute 55% of the annual rainfall, while the long rains contribute 35%. Frequent droughts cause crop failure raising the dilemma whether farmers can apply fertilizer to crops in either season. Fertilizer and hybrid seeds are expensive and farmers no longer keep sufficient livestock for manure due to small land units and lack of herdsmen occasioned by free primary education. Poor farmers plant inferior cultivars without fertilizer or manure and fail to apply pesticides or manage weeds. Illiteracy and low mechanization limit the ability to maintain required plant population, and planting is late due to inability to prepare land early. Crops are therefore unable to utilize all available moisture. Farmers must use recommended cultural practices including appropriate cultivars, fertility, seed, planting time, weeding and pesticide application. The produce must also attract competitive market prices. Investing in production, including use of fertilizer, is risky and can be done during the short rains. The government must be courageous in formulating enabling policies. Policy should regulate use of land based on size and potential. Planting grass for livestock, not maize for humans, gives better results in ASALs. Overcoming these dilemmas empowers the ASALs to power the green revolution.

Keywords

ASALs Bimodal Mechanization Production Risk 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

Acknowledgements

It is with great appreciation that the author acknowledges the support granted to him by the Director KARI and the Center Director at KARI Kiboko during the study leading to this chapter.

References

  1. Bationo A, Hartermink A, Lungu O, Naimi M, Okoth PF, Smaling E, Thiombiano L (2006) African soils: their productivity and profitability of fertilizer use. In Africa fertilizer summit, Abuja, Nigeria, 9–13 June 2006Google Scholar
  2. Breman H (1990) No sustainability without inputs. Sub-Saharan Africa beyond adjustment: African Seminar, Ministry of foreign affaris, DGIS, The HagueGoogle Scholar
  3. Bumb B (1995) Global fertilizer perspective 1980–2000: the challenges in structural transformations, technical bulletin T-42, IFDC, Muscle Shoals, AlabamaGoogle Scholar
  4. Cadgil S, Rao PRS, Rao KN (2002) Use of Climate information for farm level decision making: rainfed agriculture in Southern India. Agric Syst 74:431–457CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Collinson MP (1978) Survey of 132 farmers in parts of lower, drier areas of Northern Division, Machakos. CIMMYT/Medical Research Centre, Nairobi (mimeo)Google Scholar
  6. Dolan R, Defoer T, Paultor G (2004) Kenya Arid and Semi-Arid Lands Research Programme, KARI. Final Feasibility ReportGoogle Scholar
  7. Eswaran H, Almaraz R, Van den berg E, Reich P (1996) Assessment of soil resources of Africa in relation to productivity. World Soil Resources, Soil Survey Division, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, DCGoogle Scholar
  8. FAO (1978) Report on the agricultural zones project, methodology and results for Africa, vol 1. World soil resources project, 48, FAO, Rome, Italy, 158pGoogle Scholar
  9. Freeman HA, Omiti JM (2003) A Freeman and Omiti, fertilizer use in semi-arid areas of Kenya: analysis of smallholder farmers’ adoption behaviour under liberalized markets. Nutr Cycling Agroecosyst 66:23–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Griffiths JF (1972) Climates of Africa. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 313–347Google Scholar
  11. Henao J, Baanate CA (1999) Nutrient depletion in agricultural soils in Africa, 2020 Vision, No. 62. IFPRIGoogle Scholar
  12. Hopper WD (1993) Indian agriculture and fertilizer: an outsider’s observations, keynote address to the FAI seminar on emerging scenario in fertilizer and agriculture: global dimensions. FAI, New Delhi, IndiaGoogle Scholar
  13. ICRISAT (1985–1988) ICRISAT Sahelian Centre, Annual report, 1984, ICRISAT, PatancheruGoogle Scholar
  14. IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture) (1992) Sustainable food production in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 1, IITA’s Contributions, Ibadan, NigeriaGoogle Scholar
  15. Ingram KT, Roncoli MC, Kirshen PH (2002) Opportunities and constraints for farmers of West Africa to use seasonal precipitation forecasts with Burkina Faso as a case study. Agric Syst 74:331–349CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Jayre TJ, Govereh J, Wanzala M, Demeke M (2003) Fertilizer policy development: a comprehensive analysis of Ethiopia, Kenya and Zambia. Food Policy Anal 28(4):293–3116CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Kenworthy J (1964) Rainfall and water resources of E. Africa. Geographers and the tropics, liverpool essays. Longmans, Green and Co., London, 111–137Google Scholar
  18. Kenya Gazette (2005) Kenya Gazette Supplement No. 63. Government Printer, NairobiGoogle Scholar
  19. Kimani K, Pickard J (1998) Recent trends and implications of group ranch sub-division and fragmentation in Kajiado District, KenyaGoogle Scholar
  20. Mugabe J (1994) Research on biofertilizers: Kenya, Zimbabwe and Tanzania, Biotechnology and development monitor, No. 18, Mar 1994Google Scholar
  21. Musembi DK (1986) The use of precipitation to identify soil moisture patterns and growing seasons in Eastern Kenya. J Agric For Meteorol 37:47–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Musembi DK (1999) Survey report for Traditional indicators of rainfall in KajiadoGoogle Scholar
  23. Nandwa SM (2003) Perspectives on soil fertility in Africa. In: Gichuru MP et al (eds) Soil fertility management in Africa, a regional perspective. Academy of Science Publishers (ASP) and Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute, CIAT, Nairobi, pp 1–50Google Scholar
  24. Nieuwolt S(1982) Tropical rainfall variability, the agroclimatic impact. Agric Environ 7:135–148CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Pasha IK (1986) Evolution and individuation of group ranches in Masailand. In: Hansen RM, Woie BM, Childs RD (eds) Range management and research in Kenya. Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Morrilton, pp 303–318Google Scholar
  26. Phillips JG, Deane D, Unganai L, Chimeli A (2002) Implications of farm-level response to seasons climate forecasts for aggregate grain production in Zimbabwe. Agric Syst 74(2092):351–369CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Rodewald GE (1978) Machakos Survey results. Analysis of 40 farmers during the Long rains of 1977, carried out by Development Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya (mimeo)Google Scholar
  28. Rukadema M, Mavua JK, Audi PO (1981) Farming survey results from Mwala (100 farmers). UNDP/FAO/GoK Dryland Farming Research and Development ProjectGoogle Scholar
  29. Sachs JD (2005) Investing in development: a practical method of achieving the millennium development goals. Report of the UN Millennium Development Project to the UN General Secretary, UN, New York, NYGoogle Scholar
  30. Sanchez PA, Shepherd KO, Saule MJ, Place FM, Mokwunye AU, Buresh RJ, Kwesiga FR, Izac AMN, Ndiritu CG, Woomer PL (1997) Soil fertility replenishment in Africa: an investment in natural resource capital. In: Buresh RJ et al (eds) Replenishing soil fertility in Africa. SSA Special Pub. 51, SSSA, Madison, WI, pp 1–46Google Scholar
  31. Sanchez PA, Swaminathan MS (2005) Cutting world hunger in half. Science 307:357–359PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Shapiro BI, Sanders JH (1998) Fertilizer use in semi-arid West Africa: profitability and supporting policy. Agric Syst 56:467–482CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Smaling EMA (1993) An agro-ecological framework of integrated nutrient management with special reference to Kenya. Waginengen Agricultural University, WageningenGoogle Scholar
  34. Stewart JI, Kashasha DAR (1984) Rainfall criteria to enable response farming through crop based climate analysis. E Afr Agric For J (Special Issue):58–78Google Scholar
  35. Tabo R, Bationo A, Gerard B, Ndjeunga J, Machal D, Amadou B, Anou G, Sogodogo D, Taonda JBS, Hossane H, Dialo MK, Koala S (2007) Improving soil productivity and farmers’ income using strategic application of fertilizers in West Africa. In: Bationo A, Waswa BS, Kilhara J, Kimetu J (eds) In advances in integrated soil fertility management in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and opportunities, vol XIV. Springer, Dordrecht. ISBN:978-1-4020-5759-5, 1097pGoogle Scholar
  36. Todorov A, Pali-Shikulu J (1973) Agrometeorological assessment of temperature conditions. WMO No. 389, pp 170–180Google Scholar
  37. UNDP/GEF (2004) Reclaiming the land sustaining livelihoods: lessons for the future. United Nations Development Fund/Global Environmental Facility, Nov, 2004Google Scholar
  38. Van Kuelen H, Breman H (1990) Agricultural development in West African Sahelian: a cure for land hunger. Agric Ecosyst Environ 32:177–197CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Wallace MB, Kneusenberger MI (1997) Inorganic fertilizer use in Africa: Environmental and economic dimensions, Environmental and natural resources policy and training (EPAT) project, Applied research, Technical assistance and training, September 1997, Winrock International Environmental Alliance, Arlington, VirginiaGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Kiboko Research CentreMakinduKenya

Personalised recommendations