Chronobiology of Mood Disorders

  • Felice Iasevoli
  • Livia Avvisati
  • Valentina Gilardi
  • Gianmarco Latte
  • Emiliano Prinzivalli
  • Domenico de Berardis
  • Alessandro Valchera
  • Michele Fornaro
  • Carmine Tomasetti
  • Andrea de Bartolomeis
Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

The strong intimate relationship between mood disorders and life rhythms has been nowadays clearly recognized and analyzed, becoming one of the cornerstones for pathophysiological theorizations and therapeutic interventions in these diseases. Several body functions undergo biological rhythm, e.g., daily variations in hormone secretion or in body temperature or the sleep-wake cycle. Endogenous rhythms are primarily regulated by the circadian clock, a cluster of nerve cells that have their main localization in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus. Endogenous rhythms may in turn be modulated by multiple exogenous clues, first of all the dark/light daily variations. Endogenous and exogenous rhythms intermingle in very complex associations, whose effects on human behavior, as well as their molecular determinants, are becoming to be elucidated. The term chronobiology refers both to the characterization of the biological underpinnings of life rhythms and to the clarification of their effects on several biological functions, including behavioral disease. The scope of this chapter is to provide an appraisal of the newest reports on the chronobiology of mood disorders. We will first describe the structural and functional anatomy, as well as the genetic, of the circadian clock, i.e., the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Then, we will review recent findings on the neurobiology and neuroimaging of the sleep-wake cycle. In the third part of the chapter, we will deal with the neurobiology of stress and its relationship with circadian rhythms. In the last section of the chapter, the biological effects of circadian rhythms and stress on affective states and mood disorders will be summarized and discussed.

Keywords

Circadian rhythms Suprachiasmatic nucleus Pacemaker HPA axis Sleep-wake cycle 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. 1.
    Monteleone P, Martiadis V, Maj M. Circadian rhythms and treatment implications in depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2011;35(7):1569–74. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.07.028.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Dibner C, Schibler U, Albrecht U. The mammalian circadian timing system: organization and coordination of central and peripheral clocks. Annu Rev Physiol. 2010;72:517–49. doi: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-021909-135821.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Pevet P, Challet E. Melatonin: both master clock output and internal time-giver in the circadian clocks network. J Physiol Paris. 2011;105(4–6):170–82. doi: 10.1016/j.jphysparis.2011.07.001.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Schulz P, Steimer T. Neurobiology of circadian systems. CNS Drugs. 2009;23 Suppl 2:3–13. doi: 10.2165/11318620-000000000-00000.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Mohawk JA, Takahashi JS. Cell autonomy and synchrony of suprachiasmatic nucleus circadian oscillators. Trends Neurosci. 2011;34(7):349–58. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2011.05.003.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Welsh DK, Takahashi JS, Kay SA. Suprachiasmatic nucleus: cell autonomy and network properties. Annu Rev Physiol. 2010;72:551–77. doi: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-021909-135919.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Lehman MN, Silver R, Gladstone WR, Kahn RM, Gibson M, Bittman EL. Circadian rhythmicity restored by neural transplant. Immunocytochemical characterization of the graft and its integration with the host brain. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci. 1987;7(6):1626–38.Google Scholar
  8. 8.
    Hattar S, Liao HW, Takao M, Berson DM, Yau KW. Melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells: architecture, projections, and intrinsic photosensitivity. Science. 2002;295(5557):1065–70. doi: 10.1126/science.1069609.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Smith BN, Sollars PJ, Dudek FE, Pickard GE. Serotonergic modulation of retinal input to the mouse suprachiasmatic nucleus mediated by 5-HT1B and 5-HT7 receptors. J Biol Rhythms. 2001;16(1):25–38.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Paulus EV, Mintz EM. Developmental disruption of the serotonin system alters circadian rhythms. Physiol Behav. 2012;105(2):257–63. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.032.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Moore RY, Speh JC. Serotonin innervation of the primate suprachiasmatic nucleus. Brain Res. 2004;1010(1–2):169–73. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.02.024.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Dickmeis T. Glucocorticoids and the circadian clock. J Endocrinol. 2009;200(1):3–22. doi: 10.1677/JOE-08-0415.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Macchi MM, Bruce JN. Human pineal physiology and functional significance of melatonin. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2004;25(3–4):177–95. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2004.08.001.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Groos GA, Meijer JH. Effects of illumination on suprachiasmatic nucleus electrical discharge. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1985;453:134–46.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Drazen DL, Nelson RJ. Melatonin receptor subtype MT2 (Mel 1b) and not mt1 (Mel 1a) is associated with melatonin-induced enhancement of cell-mediated and humoral immunity. Neuroendocrinology. 2001;74(3):178–84. doi: 10.1159/000054684.
  16. 16.
    Lotufo CM, Lopes C, Dubocovich ML, Farsky SH, Markus RP. Melatonin and N-acetylserotonin inhibit leukocyte rolling and adhesion to rat microcirculation. Eur J Pharmacol. 2001;430(2–3):351–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Bahr I, Muhlbauer E, Schucht H, Peschke E. Melatonin stimulates glucagon secretion in vitro and in vivo. J Pineal Res. 2011;50(3):336–44. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2010.00848.x.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Kopp C, Vogel E, Rettori MC, Delagrange P, Renard P, Lesieur D, et al. Regulation of emotional behaviour by day length in mice: implication of melatonin. Behav Pharmacol. 1999;10(8):747–52.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Reppert SM, Weaver DR. Coordination of circadian timing in mammals. Nature. 2002;418(6901):935–41. doi: 10.1038/nature00965.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Kennaway DJ. Clock genes at the heart of depression. J Psychopharmacol. 2010;24(2 Suppl):5–14. doi: 10.1177/1359786810372980.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Robinson I, Reddy AB. Molecular mechanisms of the circadian clockwork in mammals. FEBS Lett. 2014;588(15):2477–83. doi: 10.1016/j.febslet.2014.06.005.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Krueger JM, Rector DM, Roy S, Van Dongen HP, Belenky G, Panksepp J. Sleep as a fundamental property of neuronal assemblies. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9(12):910–9. doi: 10.1038/nrn2521.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Wulff K, Porcheret K, Cussans E, Foster RG. Sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances: multiple genes and multiple phenotypes. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2009;19(3):237–46. doi: 10.1016/j.gde.2009.03.007.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Saper CB, Cano G, Scammell TE. Homeostatic, circadian, and emotional regulation of sleep. J Comp Neurol. 2005;493(1):92–8. doi: 10.1002/cne.20770.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Saper CB, Fuller PM, Pedersen NP, Lu J, Scammell TE. Sleep state switching. Neuron. 2010;68(6):1023–42. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.11.032.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Saper CB. The neurobiology of sleep. Continuum. 2013;19(1 Sleep Disorders):19–31. doi: 10.1212/01.CON.0000427215.07715.73.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Scammell TE. Wakefulness: an eye-opening perspective on orexin neurons. Curr Biol CB. 2001;11(19):R769–71.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Chemelli RM, Willie JT, Sinton CM, Elmquist JK, Scammell T, Lee C, et al. Narcolepsy in orexin knockout mice: molecular genetics of sleep regulation. Cell. 1999;98(4):437–51.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Peyron C, Tighe DK, van den Pol AN, de Lecea L, Heller HC, Sutcliffe JG, et al. Neurons containing hypocretin (orexin) project to multiple neuronal systems. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci. 1998;18(23):9996–10015.Google Scholar
  30. 30.
    Gvilia I. Underlying brain mechanisms that regulate sleep-wakefulness cycles. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2010;93:1–21. doi: 10.1016/S0074-7742(10)93001-8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Gvilia I, Xu F, McGinty D, Szymusiak R. Homeostatic regulation of sleep: a role for preoptic area neurons. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci. 2006;26(37):9426–33. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2012-06.2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Uschakov A, Gong H, McGinty D, Szymusiak R. Efferent projections from the median preoptic nucleus to sleep- and arousal-regulatory nuclei in the rat brain. Neuroscience. 2007;150(1):104–20. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.05.055.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Verret L, Goutagny R, Fort P, Cagnon L, Salvert D, Leger L, et al. A role of melanin-concentrating hormone producing neurons in the central regulation of paradoxical sleep. BMC Neurosci. 2003;4:19. doi: 10.1186/1471-2202-4-19.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Takahashi K, Kayama Y, Lin JS, Sakai K. Locus coeruleus neuronal activity during the sleep-waking cycle in mice. Neuroscience. 2010;169(3):1115–26. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.06.009.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Zeitzer JM, Morales-Villagran A, Maidment NT, Behnke EJ, Ackerson LC, Lopez-Rodriguez F, et al. Extracellular adenosine in the human brain during sleep and sleep deprivation: an in vivo microdialysis study. Sleep. 2006;29(4):455–61.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Malhi GS, Kuiper S. Chronobiology of mood disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 2013;444:2–15. doi: 10.1111/acps.12173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Maquet P, Hirsch E, Dive D, Salmon E, Marescaux C, Franck G. Cerebral glucose utilization during sleep in Landau-Kleffner syndrome: a PET study. Epilepsia. 1990;31(6):778–83.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Maquet P. Positron emission tomography studies of sleep and sleep disorders. J Neurol. 1997;244(4 Suppl 1):S23–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Maquet P. Functional neuroimaging of normal human sleep by positron emission tomography. J Sleep Res. 2000;9(3):207–31.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Braun AR, Balkin TJ, Wesenten NJ, Carson RE, Varga M, Baldwin P, et al. Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-wake cycle. An H2(15)O PET study. Brain J Neurol. 1997;120(Pt 7):1173–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Andersson JL, Onoe H, Hetta J, Lidstrom K, Valind S, Lilja A, et al. Brain networks affected by synchronized sleep visualized by positron emission tomography. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab Off J Int Soc Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1998;18(7):701–15. doi: 10.1097/00004647-199807000-00001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Dang-Vu TT. Neuronal oscillations in sleep: insights from functional neuroimaging. Neuromolecular Med. 2012;14(3):154–67. doi: 10.1007/s12017-012-8166-1.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Braun AR, Varga M, Stager S, Schulz G, Selbie S, Maisog JM, et al. Altered patterns of cerebral activity during speech and language production in developmental stuttering. An H2(15)O positron emission tomography study. Brain J Neurol. 1997;120(Pt 5):761–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Maquet P, Lejeune H, Pouthas V, Bonnet M, Casini L, Macar F, et al. Brain activation induced by estimation of duration: a PET study. Neuroimage. 1996;3(2):119–26. doi: 10.1006/nimg.1996.0014.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Maquet P, Ruby P, Maudoux A, Albouy G, Sterpenich V, Dang-Vu T, et al. Human cognition during REM sleep and the activity profile within frontal and parietal cortices: a reappraisal of functional neuroimaging data. Prog Brain Res. 2005;150:219–27. doi: 10.1016/S0079-6123(05)50016-5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Nofzinger EA, Mintun MA, Wiseman M, Kupfer DJ, Moore RY. Forebrain activation in REM sleep: an FDG PET study. Brain Res. 1997;770(1–2):192–201.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Datta S, Siwek DF. Excitation of the brain stem pedunculopontine tegmentum cholinergic cells induces wakefulness and REM sleep. J Neurophysiol. 1997;77(6):2975–88.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Czisch M, Wehrle R, Kaufmann C, Wetter TC, Holsboer F, Pollmacher T, et al. Functional MRI during sleep: BOLD signal decreases and their electrophysiological correlates. Eur J Neurosci. 2004;20(2):566–74. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03518.x.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Kaufmann C, Wehrle R, Wetter TC, Holsboer F, Auer DP, Pollmacher T, et al. Brain activation and hypothalamic functional connectivity during human non-rapid eye movement sleep: an EEG/fMRI study. Brain J Neurol. 2006;129(Pt 3):655–67. doi: 10.1093/brain/awh686.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Steriade M. Grouping of brain rhythms in corticothalamic systems. Neuroscience. 2006;137(4):1087–106. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.10.029.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    McCarley RW, Winkelman JW, Duffy FH. Human cerebral potentials associated with REM sleep rapid eye movements: links to PGO waves and waking potentials. Brain Res. 1983;274(2):359–64.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Schabus M, Dang-Vu TT, Albouy G, Balteau E, Boly M, Carrier J, et al. Hemodynamic cerebral correlates of sleep spindles during human non-rapid eye movement sleep. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104(32):13164–9. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0703084104.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Andrade KC, Spoormaker VI, Dresler M, Wehrle R, Holsboer F, Samann PG, et al. Sleep spindles and hippocampal functional connectivity in human NREM sleep. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci. 2011;31(28):10331–9. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5660-10.2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Dang-Vu TT, Bonjean M, Schabus M, Boly M, Darsaud A, Desseilles M, et al. Interplay between spontaneous and induced brain activity during human non-rapid eye movement sleep. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(37):15438–43. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1112503108.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Peigneux P, Laureys S, Fuchs S, Delbeuck X, Degueldre C, Aerts J, et al. Generation of rapid eye movements during paradoxical sleep in humans. Neuroimage. 2001;14(3):701–8. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2001.0874.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Wehrle R, Czisch M, Kaufmann C, Wetter TC, Holsboer F, Auer DP, et al. Rapid eye movement-related brain activation in human sleep: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroreport. 2005;16(8):853–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Miyauchi S, Misaki M, Kan S, Fukunaga T, Koike T. Human brain activity time-locked to rapid eye movements during REM sleep. Exp Brain Res. 2009;192(4):657–67. doi: 10.1007/s00221-008-1579-2.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Wehrle R, Kaufmann C, Wetter TC, Holsboer F, Auer DP, Pollmacher T, et al. Functional microstates within human REM sleep: first evidence from fMRI of a thalamocortical network specific for phasic REM periods. Eur J Neurosci. 2007;25(3):863–71. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05314.x.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Joels M, Baram TZ. The neuro-symphony of stress. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10(6):459–66. doi: 10.1038/nrn2632.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Arnsten AF, Wang MJ, Paspalas CD. Neuromodulation of thought: flexibilities and vulnerabilities in prefrontal cortical network synapses. Neuron. 2012;76(1):223–39. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.08.038.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Vale W, Spiess J, Rivier C, Rivier J. Characterization of a 41-residue ovine hypothalamic peptide that stimulates secretion of corticotropin and beta-endorphin. Science. 1981;213(4514):1394–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Joels M, Sarabdjitsingh RA, Karst H. Unraveling the time domains of corticosteroid hormone influences on brain activity: rapid, slow, and chronic modes. Pharmacol Rev. 2012;64(4):901–38. doi: 10.1124/pr.112.005892.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Valentino RJ, Van Bockstaele E. Convergent regulation of locus coeruleus activity as an adaptive response to stress. Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;583(2–3):194–203. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.062.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Arnsten AF. The biology of being frazzled. Science. 1998;280(5370):1711–2.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Birnbaum S, Gobeske KT, Auerbach J, Taylor JR, Arnsten AF. A role for norepinephrine in stress-induced cognitive deficits: alpha-1-adrenoceptor mediation in the prefrontal cortex. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;46(9):1266–74.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Roozendaal B, McEwen BS, Chattarji S. Stress, memory and the amygdala. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10(6):423–33. doi: 10.1038/nrn2651.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Wang M, Ramos BP, Paspalas CD, Shu Y, Simen A, Duque A, et al. Alpha2A-adrenoceptors strengthen working memory networks by inhibiting cAMP-HCN channel signaling in prefrontal cortex. Cell. 2007;129(2):397–410. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2007.03.015.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Ungless MA, Argilli E, Bonci A. Effects of stress and aversion on dopamine neurons: implications for addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2010;35(2):151–6. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.04.006.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Matsumoto M, Hikosaka O. Two types of dopamine neuron distinctly convey positive and negative motivational signals. Nature. 2009;459(7248):837–41. doi: 10.1038/nature08028.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Lammel S, Ion DI, Roeper J, Malenka RC. Projection-specific modulation of dopamine neuron synapses by aversive and rewarding stimuli. Neuron. 2011;70(5):855–62. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.03.025.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Karst H, Berger S, Turiault M, Tronche F, Schutz G, Joels M. Mineralocorticoid receptors are indispensable for nongenomic modulation of hippocampal glutamate transmission by corticosterone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102(52):19204–7. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0507572102.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Tasker JG. Rapid glucocorticoid actions in the hypothalamus as a mechanism of homeostatic integration. Obesity. 2006;14 Suppl 5:259S–65. doi: 10.1038/oby.2006.320.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Tasker JG, Di S, Malcher-Lopes R. Minireview: rapid glucocorticoid signaling via membrane-associated receptors. Endocrinology. 2006;147(12):5549–56. doi: 10.1210/en.2006-0981.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Karst H, Berger S, Erdmann G, Schutz G, Joels M. Metaplasticity of amygdalar responses to the stress hormone corticosterone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107(32):14449–54. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0914381107.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    McReynolds JR, Donowho K, Abdi A, McGaugh JL, Roozendaal B, McIntyre CK. Memory-enhancing corticosterone treatment increases amygdala norepinephrine and Arc protein expression in hippocampal synaptic fractions. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2010;93(3):312–21. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2009.11.005.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Butts KA, Weinberg J, Young AH, Phillips AG. Glucocorticoid receptors in the prefrontal cortex regulate stress-evoked dopamine efflux and aspects of executive function. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(45):18459–64. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1111746108.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Yuen EY, Liu W, Karatsoreos IN, Ren Y, Feng J, McEwen BS, et al. Mechanisms for acute stress-induced enhancement of glutamatergic transmission and working memory. Mol Psychiatry. 2011;16(2):156–70. doi: 10.1038/mp.2010.50.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Karst H, Joels M. Corticosterone slowly enhances miniature excitatory postsynaptic current amplitude in mice CA1 hippocampal cells. J Neurophysiol. 2005;94(5):3479–86. doi: 10.1152/jn.00143.2005.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Laird AR, Fox PM, Eickhoff SB, Turner JA, Ray KL, McKay DR, et al. Behavioral interpretations of intrinsic connectivity networks. J Cogn Neurosci. 2011;23(12):4022–37. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_00077.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Corbetta M, Patel G, Shulman GL. The reorienting system of the human brain: from environment to theory of mind. Neuron. 2008;58(3):306–24. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2008.04.017.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Sara SJ, Bouret S. Orienting and reorienting: the locus coeruleus mediates cognition through arousal. Neuron. 2012;76(1):130–41. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.09.011.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Aston-Jones G, Cohen JD. Adaptive gain and the role of the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system in optimal performance. J Comp Neurol. 2005;493(1):99–110. doi: 10.1002/cne.20723.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Aston-Jones G, Cohen JD. An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: adaptive gain and optimal performance. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2005;28:403–50. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Ashby FG, Turner BO, Horvitz JC. Cortical and basal ganglia contributions to habit learning and automaticity. Trends Cogn Sci. 2010;14(5):208–15. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.02.001.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Oei NY, Veer IM, Wolf OT, Spinhoven P, Rombouts SA, Elzinga BM. Stress shifts brain activation towards ventral ‘affective’ areas during emotional distraction. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2012;7(4):403–12. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsr024.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Wager TD, van Ast VA, Hughes BL, Davidson ML, Lindquist MA, Ochsner KN. Brain mediators of cardiovascular responses to social threat, part II: prefrontal-subcortical pathways and relationship with anxiety. Neuroimage. 2009;47(3):836–51. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.05.044.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Wager TD, Waugh CE, Lindquist M, Noll DC, Fredrickson BL, Taylor SF. Brain mediators of cardiovascular responses to social threat: part I: reciprocal dorsal and ventral sub-regions of the medial prefrontal cortex and heart-rate reactivity. Neuroimage. 2009;47(3):821–35. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.05.043.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Putman P, Hermans EJ, Koppeschaar H, van Schijndel A, van Honk J. A single administration of cortisol acutely reduces preconscious attention for fear in anxious young men. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2007;32(7):793–802. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.05.009.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Het S, Wolf OT. Mood changes in response to psychosocial stress in healthy young women: effects of pretreatment with cortisol. Behav Neurosci. 2007;121(1):11–20. doi: 10.1037/0735-7044.121.1.11.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Henckens MJ, van Wingen GA, Joels M, Fernandez G. Time-dependent effects of corticosteroids on human amygdala processing. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci. 2010;30(38):12725–32. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3112-10.2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Henckens MJ, van Wingen GA, Joels M, Fernandez G. Corticosteroid induced decoupling of the amygdala in men. Cereb Cortex. 2012;22(10):2336–45. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhr313.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Arnsten AF. Through the looking glass: differential noradrenergic modulation of prefrontal cortical function. Neural Plast. 2000;7(1–2):133–46. doi: 10.1155/NP.2000.133.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Devilbiss DM, Jenison RL, Berridge CW. Stress-induced impairment of a working memory task: role of spiking rate and spiking history predicted discharge. PLoS Comput Biol. 2012;8(9):e1002681. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002681.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Plessow F, Fischer R, Kirschbaum C, Goschke T. Inflexibly focused under stress: acute psychosocial stress increases shielding of action goals at the expense of reduced cognitive flexibility with increasing time lag to the stressor. J Cogn Neurosci. 2011;23(11):3218–27. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_00024.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Yuen EY, Liu W, Karatsoreos IN, Feng J, McEwen BS, Yan Z. Acute stress enhances glutamatergic transmission in prefrontal cortex and facilitates working memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009;106(33):14075–9. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0906791106.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Margineanu DG, Gower AJ, Gobert J, Wulfert E. Long-term adrenalectomy reduces hippocampal granule cell excitability in vivo. Brain Res Bull. 1994;33(1):93–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Okuda S, Roozendaal B, McGaugh JL. Glucocorticoid effects on object recognition memory require training-associated emotional arousal. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(3):853–8. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0307803100.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    McEwen BS. Stress and hippocampal plasticity. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1999;22:105–22. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.105.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Smith MA, Cizza G. Stress-induced changes in brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression are attenuated in aged Fischer 344/N rats. Neurobiol Aging. 1996;17(6):859–64.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Ko CH, Takahashi JS. Molecular components of the mammalian circadian clock. Hum Mol Genet 2006;15 Spec No 2:R271-7. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddl207.
  101. 101.
    Nader N, Chrousos GP, Kino T. Circadian rhythm transcription factor CLOCK regulates the transcriptional activity of the glucocorticoid receptor by acetylating its hinge region lysine cluster: potential physiological implications. FASEB J Off Publ Fed Am Soc Exp Biol. 2009;23(5):1572–83. doi: 10.1096/fj.08-117697.Google Scholar
  102. 102.
    Charmandari E, Chrousos GP, Lambrou GI, Pavlaki A, Koide H, Ng SS, et al. Peripheral CLOCK regulates target-tissue glucocorticoid receptor transcriptional activity in a circadian fashion in man. PLoS One. 2011;6(9):e25612. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025612.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Kalsbeek A, Palm IF, La Fleur SE, Scheer FA, Perreau-Lenz S, Ruiter M, et al. SCN outputs and the hypothalamic balance of life. J Biol Rhythms. 2006;21(6):458–69. doi: 10.1177/0748730406293854.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Ulrich-Lai YM, Arnhold MM, Engeland WC. Adrenal splanchnic innervation contributes to the diurnal rhythm of plasma corticosterone in rats by modulating adrenal sensitivity to ACTH. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2006;290(4):R1128–35. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00042.2003.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Son GH, Chung S, Choe HK, Kim HD, Baik SM, Lee H, et al. Adrenal peripheral clock controls the autonomous circadian rhythm of glucocorticoid by causing rhythmic steroid production. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(52):20970–5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0806962106.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    So AY, Bernal TU, Pillsbury ML, Yamamoto KR, Feldman BJ. Glucocorticoid regulation of the circadian clock modulates glucose homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009;106(41):17582–7. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0909733106.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Le Minh N, Damiola F, Tronche F, Schutz G, Schibler U. Glucocorticoid hormones inhibit food-induced phase-shifting of peripheral circadian oscillators. EMBO J. 2001;20(24):7128–36. doi: 10.1093/emboj/20.24.7128.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Sookoian S, Gemma C, Fernandez Gianotti T, Burgueno A, Alvarez A, Gonzalez CD, et al. Effects of rotating shift work on biomarkers of metabolic syndrome and inflammation. J Intern Med. 2007;261(3):285–92. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01766.x.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Straub RH, Cutolo M. Circadian rhythms in rheumatoid arthritis: implications for pathophysiology and therapeutic management. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56(2):399–408. doi: 10.1002/art.22368.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Buttgereit F, Doering G, Schaeffler A, Witte S, Sierakowski S, Gromnica-Ihle E, et al. Efficacy of modified-release versus standard prednisone to reduce duration of morning stiffness of the joints in rheumatoid arthritis (CAPRA-1): a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2008;371(9608):205–14. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60132-4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Foster RG, Wulff K. The rhythm of rest and excess. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2005;6(5):407–14. doi: 10.1038/nrn1670.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  112. 112.
    LeGates TA, Altimus CM, Wang H, Lee HK, Yang S, Zhao H, et al. Aberrant light directly impairs mood and learning through melanopsin-expressing neurons. Nature. 2012;491(7425):594–8. doi: 10.1038/nature11673.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    Paine SJ, Gander PH, Travier N. The epidemiology of morningness/eveningness: influence of age, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic factors in adults (30–49 years). J Biol Rhythms. 2006;21(1):68–76. doi: 10.1177/0748730405283154.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    Horne JA, Ostberg O. A self-assessment questionnaire to determine morningness-eveningness in human circadian rhythms. Int J Chronobiol. 1976;4(2):97–110.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  115. 115.
    Smith PA, Brown DF, Di Milia L, Wragg C. The use of the Circadian Type Inventory as a measure of the circadian constructs of vigour and rigidity. Ergonomics. 1993;36(1–3):169–75. doi: 10.1080/00140139308967869.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  116. 116.
    Smith CS, Reilly C, Midkiff K. Evaluation of three circadian rhythm questionnaires with suggestions for an improved measure of morningness. J Appl Psychol. 1989;74(5):728–38.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    Preckel F, Lipnevich AA, Boehme K, Brandner L, Georgi K, Konen T, et al. Morningness-eveningness and educational outcomes: the lark has an advantage over the owl at high school. Br J Educ Psychol. 2013;83(Pt 1):114–34. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8279.2011.02059.x.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  118. 118.
    Roenneberg T. The day within. Chronobiol Int. 2003;20(4):525–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Alward RR. Are you a lark or an owl on the night shift? Am J Nurs. 1988;88(10):1337–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  120. 120.
    Kudielka BM, Federenko IS, Hellhammer DH, Wust S. Morningness and eveningness: the free cortisol rise after awakening in “early birds” and “night owls”. Biol Psychol. 2006;72(2):141–6. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.08.003.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  121. 121.
    Zohar D, Tzischinsky O, Epstein R, Lavie P. The effects of sleep loss on medical residents’ emotional reactions to work events: a cognitive-energy model. Sleep. 2005;28(1):47–54.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  122. 122.
    Guadagni V, Burles F, Ferrara M, Iaria G. The effects of sleep deprivation on emotional empathy. J Sleep Res. 2014;23(6):657–63. doi: 10.1111/jsr.12192.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  123. 123.
    Simon RD. Shift work disorder: clinical assessment and treatment strategies. J Clin Psychiatry. 2012;73(6):e20. doi: 10.4088/JCP.11073br3.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  124. 124.
    Dinges DF, Pack F, Williams K, Gillen KA, Powell JW, Ott GE, et al. Cumulative sleepiness, mood disturbance, and psychomotor vigilance performance decrements during a week of sleep restricted to 4–5 hours per night. Sleep. 1997;20(4):267–77.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  125. 125.
    Kamdar BB, Kaplan KA, Kezirian EJ, Dement WC. The impact of extended sleep on daytime alertness, vigilance, and mood. Sleep Med. 2004;5(5):441–8. doi: 10.1016/j.sleep.2004.05.003.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  126. 126.
    Adan A, Archer SN, Hidalgo MP, Di Milia L, Natale V, Randler C. Circadian typology: a comprehensive review. Chronobiol Int. 2012;29(9):1153–75. doi: 10.3109/07420528.2012.719971.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  127. 127.
    Hasler BP, Allen JJ, Sbarra DA, Bootzin RR, Bernert RA. Morningness-eveningness and depression: preliminary evidence for the role of the behavioral activation system and positive affect. Psychiatry Res. 2010;176(2–3):166–73. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2009.06.006.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  128. 128.
    Randler C. Morningness-eveningness comparison in adolescents from different countries around the world. Chronobiol Int. 2008;25(6):1017–28. doi: 10.1080/07420520802551519.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  129. 129.
    DeYoung CG, Hasher L, Djikic M, Criger B, Peterson JB. Morning people are stable people: circadian rhythm and the higher-order factors of the Big Five. Personal Individ Differ. 2007;43:267–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. 130.
    Tonetti L, Fabbri M, Natale V. Relationship between circadian typology and big five personality domains. Chronobiol Int. 2009;26(2):337–47. doi: 10.1080/07420520902750995.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  131. 131.
    Diaz-Morales JF, Gutierrez Sorroche M. Morningness-eveningness in adolescents. Span J Psychol. 2008;11(1):201–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  132. 132.
    Lewy AJ, Sack RL, Singer CM. Melatonin, light and chronobiological disorders. Ciba Found Symp. 1985;117:231–52.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  133. 133.
    Cavallera GM, Giampietro M. Morning and evening personality characteristics in a sample of young Italians. Percept Mot Skills. 2007;104(1):277–86. doi: 10.2466/pms.104.1.277-286.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  134. 134.
    Adan A, Lachica J, Caci H, Natale V. Circadian typology and temperament and character personality dimensions. Chronobiol Int. 2010;27(1):181–93. doi: 10.3109/07420520903398559.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  135. 135.
    Jankowski KS. The role of temperament in the relationship between morningness-eveningness and mood. Chronobiol Int. 2014;31(1):114–22. doi: 10.3109/07420528.2013.829845.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  136. 136.
    Wittmann M, Dinich J, Merrow M, Roenneberg T. Social jetlag: misalignment of biological and social time. Chronobiol Int. 2006;23(1–2):497–509. doi: 10.1080/07420520500545979.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  137. 137.
    Adan A. Chronotype and personality factors in the daily consumption of alcohol and psychostimulants. Addiction. 1994;89(4):455–62.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  138. 138.
    Cavallera GM, Giudici S. Morningness and eveningness personality: a survey in literature from 1995 up till 2006. Personal Individ Differ. 2008;44(1):3–21. doi: 10.1016/J.Paid.2007.07.009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  139. 139.
    Gau SS, Shang CY, Merikangas KR, Chiu YN, Soong WT, Cheng AT. Association between morningness-eveningness and behavioral/emotional problems among adolescents. J Biol Rhythms. 2007;22(3):268–74. doi: 10.1177/0748730406298447.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  140. 140.
    Biss RK, Hasher L. Happy as a lark: morning-type younger and older adults are higher in positive affect. Emotion. 2012;12(3):437–41. doi: 10.1037/a0027071.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  141. 141.
    Hidalgo MP, Caumo W, Posser M, Coccaro SB, Camozzato AL, Chaves ML. Relationship between depressive mood and chronotype in healthy subjects. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009;63(3):283–90. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2009.01965.x.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  142. 142.
    Randler C, Kretz S. Assortative mating in morningness-eveningness. Int J Psychol J Int Psychol. 2011;46(2):91–6. doi: 10.1080/00207594.2010.518237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  143. 143.
    Randler C, Vollmer C. Epidemiological evidence for the bimodal chronotype using the composite scale of morningness. Chronobiol Int. 2012;29(1):1–4. doi: 10.3109/07420528.2011.635233.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  144. 144.
    Kitamura S, Hida A, Watanabe M, Enomoto M, Aritake-Okada S, Moriguchi Y, et al. Evening preference is related to the incidence of depressive states independent of sleep-wake conditions. Chronobiol Int. 2010;27(9–10):1797–812. doi: 10.3109/07420528.2010.516705.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  145. 145.
    Lewy AJ, Rough JN, Songer JB, Mishra N, Yuhas K, Emens JS. The phase shift hypothesis for the circadian component of winter depression. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2007;9(3):291–300.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  146. 146.
    Wehr TA, Wirz-Justice A, Goodwin FK, Duncan W, Gillin JC. Phase advance of the circadian sleep-wake cycle as an antidepressant. Science. 1979;206(4419):710–3.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  147. 147.
    Milhiet V, Etain B, Boudebesse C, Bellivier F. Circadian biomarkers, circadian genes and bipolar disorders. J Physiol Paris. 2011;105(4–6):183–9. doi: 10.1016/j.jphysparis.2011.07.002.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  148. 148.
    Savitz J, Drevets WC. Bipolar and major depressive disorder: neuroimaging the developmental-degenerative divide. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2009;33(5):699–771. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.01.004.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  149. 149.
    Partonen T, Treutlein J, Alpman A, Frank J, Johansson C, Depner M, et al. Three circadian clock genes Per2, Arntl, and Npas2 contribute to winter depression. Ann Med. 2007;39(3):229–38. doi: 10.1080/07853890701278795.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  150. 150.
    Soria V, Martinez-Amoros E, Escaramis G, Valero J, Perez-Egea R, Garcia C, et al. Differential association of circadian genes with mood disorders: CRY1 and NPAS2 are associated with unipolar major depression and CLOCK and VIP with bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacol Off Publ Am Coll Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010;35(6):1279–89. doi: 10.1038/npp.2009.230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  151. 151.
    Benedetti F, Dallaspezia S, Fulgosi MC, Lorenzi C, Serretti A, Barbini B, et al. Actimetric evidence that CLOCK 3111 T/C SNP influences sleep and activity patterns in patients affected by bipolar depression. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet Off Publ Int Soc Psychiatr Genet. 2007;144B(5):631–5. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  152. 152.
    Benedetti F, Serretti A, Colombo C, Lorenzi C, Tubazio V, Smeraldi E. A glycogen synthase kinase 3-beta promoter gene single nucleotide polymorphism is associated with age at onset and response to total sleep deprivation in bipolar depression. Neurosci Lett. 2004;368(2):123–6. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.06.050.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  153. 153.
    Lavebratt C, Sjoholm LK, Partonen T, Schalling M, Forsell Y. PER2 variation is associated with depression vulnerability. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet Off Publ Int Soc Psychiatr Genet. 2010;153B(2):570–81. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.b.31021.Google Scholar
  154. 154.
    Johansson C, Willeit M, Smedh C, Ekholm J, Paunio T, Kieseppa T, et al. Circadian clock-related polymorphisms in seasonal affective disorder and their relevance to diurnal preference. Neuropsychopharmacol Off Publ Am Coll Neuropsychopharmacol. 2003;28(4):734–9. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  155. 155.
    Lavebratt C, Sjoholm LK, Soronen P, Paunio T, Vawter MP, Bunney WE, et al. CRY2 is associated with depression. PLoS One. 2010;5(2):e9407. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009407.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  156. 156.
    McGrath CL, Glatt SJ, Sklar P, Le-Niculescu H, Kuczenski R, Doyle AE, et al. Evidence for genetic association of RORB with bipolar disorder. BMC Psychiatry. 2009;9:70. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-9-70.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  157. 157.
    Kripke DF, Nievergelt CM, Joo E, Shekhtman T, Kelsoe JR. Circadian polymorphisms associated with affective disorders. J Circadian Rhythm. 2009;7:2. doi: 10.1186/1740-3391-7-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  158. 158.
    Sjoholm LK, Backlund L, Cheteh EH, Ek IR, Frisen L, Schalling M, et al. CRY2 is associated with rapid cycling in bipolar disorder patients. PLoS One. 2010;5(9):e12632. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012632.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  159. 159.
    Harvey AG. Sleep and circadian functioning: critical mechanisms in the mood disorders? Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2011;7:297–319. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104550.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  160. 160.
    Frey S, Birchler-Pedross A, Hofstetter M, Brunner P, Gotz T, Munch M, et al. Young women with major depression live on higher homeostatic sleep pressure than healthy controls. Chronobiol Int. 2012;29(3):278–94. doi: 10.3109/07420528.2012.656163.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  161. 161.
    Van den Hoofdakker RH. Chronobiological theories of nonseasonal affective disorders and their implications for treatment. J Biol Rhythms. 1994;9(2):157–83.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  162. 162.
    Emens J, Lewy A, Kinzie JM, Arntz D, Rough J. Circadian misalignment in major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2009;168(3):259–61. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2009.04.009.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  163. 163.
    Lewy AJ, Emens JS, Songer JB, Sims N, Laurie AL, Fiala SC, et al. Winter depression: integrating mood, circadian rhythms, and the sleep/wake and light/dark cycles into a bio-psycho-social-environmental model. Sleep Med Clin. 2009;4(2):285–99. doi: 10.1016/j.jsmc.2009.02.003.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  164. 164.
    Bunney JN, Potkin SG. Circadian abnormalities, molecular clock genes and chronobiological treatments in depression. Br Med Bull. 2008;86:23–32. doi: 10.1093/bmb/ldn019.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  165. 165.
    Murray G, Michalak EE, Levitt AJ, Levitan RD, Enns MW, Morehouse R, et al. O sweet spot where art thou? Light treatment of seasonal affective disorder and the circadian time of sleep. J Affect Disord. 2006;90(2–3):227–31. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2005.10.010.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  166. 166.
    Szuba MP, Guze BH, Baxter Jr LR. Electroconvulsive therapy increases circadian amplitude and lowers core body temperature in depressed subjects. Biol Psychiatry. 1997;42(12):1130–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  167. 167.
    Hsiao FH, Yang TT, Ho RT, Jow GM, Ng SM, Chan CL, et al. The self-perceived symptom distress and health-related conditions associated with morning to evening diurnal cortisol patterns in outpatients with major depressive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2010;35(4):503–15. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.08.019.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  168. 168.
    Harvey AG. Sleep and circadian rhythms in bipolar disorder: seeking synchrony, harmony, and regulation. Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165(7):820–9. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08010098.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  169. 169.
    Kaplan KA, Harvey AG. Hypersomnia across mood disorders: a review and synthesis. Sleep Med Rev. 2009;13(4):275–85. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2008.09.001.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  170. 170.
    Kaplan KA, Gruber J, Eidelman P, Talbot LS, Harvey AG. Hypersomnia in inter-episode bipolar disorder: does it have prognostic significance? J Affect Disord. 2011;132(3):438–44. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.013.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  171. 171.
    Wood J, Birmaher B, Axelson D, Ehmann M, Kalas C, Monk K, et al. Replicable differences in preferred circadian phase between bipolar disorder patients and control individuals. Psychiatry Res. 2009;166(2–3):201–9. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2008.03.003.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  172. 172.
    Robillard R, Naismith SL, Rogers NL, Ip TK, Hermens DF, Scott EM, et al. Delayed sleep phase in young people with unipolar or bipolar affective disorders. J Affect Disord. 2013;145(2):260–3. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2012.06.006.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  173. 173.
    Novakova M, Prasko J, Latalova K, Sladek M, Sumova A. The circadian system of patients with bipolar disorder differs in episodes of mania and depression. Bipolar Disord. 2014. doi: 10.1111/bdi.12270.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  174. 174.
    Geoffroy PA, Boudebesse C, Bellivier F, Lajnef M, Henry C, Leboyer M, et al. Sleep in remitted bipolar disorder: a naturalistic case-control study using actigraphy. J Affect Disord. 2014;158:1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.01.012.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  175. 175.
    Mistlberger RE, Antle MC. Entrainment of circadian clocks in mammals by arousal and food. Essays Biochem. 2011;49(1):119–36. doi: 10.1042/bse0490119.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  176. 176.
    Grandin LD, Alloy LB, Abramson LY. The social zeitgeber theory, circadian rhythms, and mood disorders: review and evaluation. Clin Psychol Rev. 2006;26(6):679–94. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2006.07.001.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  177. 177.
    Gold PW, Chrousos GP. Organization of the stress system and its dysregulation in melancholic and atypical depression: high vs. low CRH/NE states. Mol Psychiatry. 2002;7(3):254–75. doi: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001032.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  178. 178.
    Daban C, Vieta E, Mackin P, Young AH. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and bipolar disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2005;28(2):469–80. doi: 10.1016/j.psc.2005.01.005.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  179. 179.
    Salvadore G, Quiroz JA, Machado-Vieira R, Henter ID, Manji HK, Zarate Jr CA. The neurobiology of the switch process in bipolar disorder: a review. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(11):1488–501. doi: 10.4088/JCP.09r05259gre.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  180. 180.
    Wingenfeld K, Wolf OT. Effects of cortisol on cognition in major depressive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder and borderline personality disorder – 2014 Curt Richter Award Winner. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2015;51:282–95. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.10.009.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  181. 181.
    Pariante CM, Lightman SL. The HPA axis in major depression: classical theories and new developments. Trends Neurosci. 2008;31(9):464–8. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2008.06.006.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  182. 182.
    Kudielka BM, Buske-Kirschbaum A, Hellhammer DH, Kirschbaum C. HPA axis responses to laboratory psychosocial stress in healthy elderly adults, younger adults, and children: impact of age and gender. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2004;29(1):83–98.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  183. 183.
    Het S, Schoofs D, Rohleder N, Wolf OT. Stress-induced cortisol level elevations are associated with reduced negative affect after stress: indications for a mood-buffering cortisol effect. Psychosom Med. 2012;74(1):23–32. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e31823a4a25.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  184. 184.
    Sanchez MM, Ladd CO, Plotsky PM. Early adverse experience as a developmental risk factor for later psychopathology: evidence from rodent and primate models. Dev Psychopathol. 2001;13(3):419–49.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  185. 185.
    Pariante CM. The glucocorticoid receptor: part of the solution or part of the problem? J Psychopharmacol. 2006;20(4 Suppl):79–84. doi: 10.1177/1359786806066063.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  186. 186.
    Heim C, Newport DJ, Mletzko T, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB. The link between childhood trauma and depression: insights from HPA axis studies in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2008;33(6):693–710. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.008.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  187. 187.
    Raison CL, Capuron L, Miller AH. Cytokines sing the blues: inflammation and the pathogenesis of depression. Trends Immunol. 2006;27(1):24–31. doi: 10.1016/j.it.2005.11.006.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  188. 188.
    van Rossum EF, Binder EB, Majer M, Koper JW, Ising M, Modell S, et al. Polymorphisms of the glucocorticoid receptor gene and major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;59(8):681–8. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.02.007.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  189. 189.
    Hasler BP, Soehner AM, Clark DB. Circadian rhythms and risk for substance use disorders in adolescence. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2014;27(6):460–6. doi: 10.1097/YCO.0000000000000107.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  190. 190.
    Mendoza J, Challet E. Circadian insights into dopamine mechanisms. Neuroscience. 2014;282C:230–42. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.07.081.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  191. 191.
    Luo AH, Aston-Jones G. Circuit projection from suprachiasmatic nucleus to ventral tegmental area: a novel circadian output pathway. Eur J Neurosci. 2009;29(4):748–60. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06606.x.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  192. 192.
    Murray G, Nicholas CL, Kleiman J, Dwyer R, Carrington MJ, Allen NB, et al. Nature’s clocks and human mood: the circadian system modulates reward motivation. Emotion. 2009;9(5):705–16. doi: 10.1037/a0017080.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  193. 193.
    Murray G, Allen NB, Trinder J. Mood and the circadian system: investigation of a circadian component in positive affect. Chronobiol Int. 2002;19(6):1151–69.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer India 2016

Authors and Affiliations

  • Felice Iasevoli
    • 1
    • 2
  • Livia Avvisati
    • 1
  • Valentina Gilardi
    • 1
  • Gianmarco Latte
    • 1
  • Emiliano Prinzivalli
    • 1
  • Domenico de Berardis
    • 3
    • 4
  • Alessandro Valchera
    • 1
    • 2
    • 5
  • Michele Fornaro
    • 2
    • 6
  • Carmine Tomasetti
    • 1
    • 2
  • Andrea de Bartolomeis
    • 1
  1. 1.Laboratory of Molecular and Translational Psychiatry, Department of NeuroscienceUniversity School of Medicine “Federico II”NaplesItaly
  2. 2.Polyedra Clinical GroupTeramoItaly
  3. 3.NHS, Department of Mental HealthPsychiatric Service of Diagnosis and Treatment Hospital “G. Mazzini”TeramoItaly
  4. 4.Department of Neurosciences and Imaging, and Clinical SciencesUniversity “G. D’Annunzio”ChietiItaly
  5. 5.Villa S. Giuseppe Hospital, Hermanas HospitalariasAscoli PicenoItaly
  6. 6.Department of Education ScienceUniversity of CataniaCataniaItaly

Personalised recommendations