Rheumatoid Arthritis and Ankylosing Spondylitis

Chapter

Abstract

Recent years have seen an extraordinary growth in our knowledge and understanding of the pathogenesis of inflammatory arthritis that has been reflected in the development of new therapies and changing clinical practice. This chapter will review two of the most common forms of inflammatory arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis and explore their epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features and treatment.

Keywords

Rheumatoid Arthritis Ankylose Spondylitis Anterior Uveitis Bath Ankylose Spondylitis Functional Index Axial Disease 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. Abu-Amer Y, Erdmann J, Alexopoulou L, Kollias G, Ross FP, Teitelbaum SL (2000) Tumor necrosis factor receptors types 1 and 2 differentially regulate osteoclastogenesis. J Biol Chem 275:27307–27310PubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. Aceves-Avila FJ, Baez-Molgado S, Medina F, Fraga A (1998) Paleopathology in osseous remains from the 16th century. A survey of rheumatic diseases. J Rheumatol 25:776–782PubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. Alamanos Y, Voulgari PV, Drosos AA (2006) Incidence and prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis, based on the 1987 american college of rheumatology criteria: A systematic review. Sem Arth Rheum 36:182–188 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Amor B, Santos RS, Nahal R, Listrat V, Dougados M (1994) Predictive factors for the longterm outcome of spondyloarthropathies. J Rheumatol 21:1883–1887PubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. Anderson JJ, Baron G, van der Heijde D, Felson DT, Dougados M (2001) Ankylosing spondylitis assessment group preliminary definition of short-term improvement in ankylosing spondylitis. Arthritis Rheum 44:1876–1886 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Appel H, Ruiz-Heiland G, Listing J, Zwerina J, Herrmann M, Mueller R, Haibel H, Baraliakos X, Hempfing A, Rudwaleit M, Sieper J, Schett G (2009) Altered skeletal expression of sclerostin and its link to radiographic progression in ankylosing spondylitis. Arthritis Rheum 60:3257–3262 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Appelboom T, de Boelpaepe C, Ehrlich GE, Famaey J-P (1981) Rubens and the question of antiquity of rheumatoid arthritis. JAMA 245:483–486 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Atagunduz P, Appel H, Kuon W, Wu P, Thiel A, Kloetzel PM, Sieper J (2005) Hla-b27-restricted cd8+ t cell response to cartilage-derived self peptides in ankylosing spondylitis. Arthritis Rheum 52:892–901 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Ball J (1971) Enthesopathy of rheumatoid and ankylosing spondylitis. Ann Rheum Dis 30:213–223PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Baron R, Rawadi G, Roman-Roman S (2006) Wnt signaling: A key regulator of bone mass. Curr Top Dev Biol 76:103–127PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Benjamin M, Toumi H, Suzuki D, Redman S, Emery P, McGonagle D (2007) Microdamage and altered vascularity at the enthesis-bone interface provides an anatomic explanation for bone involvement in the hla-b27-associated spondylarthritides and allied disorders. Arthritis Rheum 56:224–233 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Boers M, Verhoeven AC, Markusse HM, van de Laar MAFJ, Westhovens R, van Denderen JC, van Zeben D, Dijkmans BAC, Peeters AJ, Jacobs P, van den Brink HR, Schouten HJA, van der Heijde DMFM, Boonen A, van der Linden S (1997) Randomised comparison of combined step-down prednisolone, methotrexate and sulphasalazine with sulphasalazine alone in early rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet 350:309–318PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Bottini N, Vang T, Cucca F, Mustelin T (2006) Role of ptpn22 in type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune diseases. Semin Immunol 18:207–213 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Brandt J, Khariouzov A, Listing J, Haibel H, Sorensen H, Grassnickel L, Rudwaleit M, Sieper J, Braun J (2003) Six-month results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of etanercept treatment in patients with active ankylosing spondylitis. Arthritis Rheum 48:1667–1675 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Braun J, Brandt J, Listing J, Zink A, Alten R, Golder W, Gromnica-Ihle E, Kellner H, Krause A, Schneider M, Sorensen H, Zeidler H, Thriene W, Sieper J (2002) Treatment of active ankylosing spondylitis with infliximab: A randomised controlled multicentre trial. Lancet 359:1187–1193 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Brewerton DA, Hart FD, Nicholls A, Caffrey M, James DCO, Sturrock RD (1973) Ankylosing spondylitis and hl-a 27. Lancet 301:904–907 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Brown MA, Brophy S, Bradbury L, Hamersma J, Timms A, Laval S, Cardon L, Calin A, Wordsworth BP (2003) Identification of major loci controlling clinical manifestations of ankylosing spondylitis. Arthritis Rheum 48:2234–2239PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Burton PR, Clayton DG, Cardon LR, Craddock N, Celoukas P, Duncanson A (2007) Association scan of 14,500 nonsynonymous snps in four diseases identifies autoimmunity variants. Nat Genet 39:1329–1337 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Calin A, Dijkmans BA, Emery P, Hakala M, Kalden J, Leirisalo-Repo M, Mola EM, Salvarani C, Sanmarti R, Sany J, Sibilia J, Sieper J, van der Linden S, Veys E, Appel AM, Fatenejad S (2004) Outcomes of a multicentre randomised clinical trial of etanercept to treat ankylosing spondylitis. Ann Rheum Dis 63:1594–1600 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Clegg DO, Reda DJ, Weisman MH, Blackburn WD, Cush JJ, Cannon GW, Mahowald ML, Schumacher HR, Jr., Taylor T, Budiman-Mak E, Cohen MR, Vasey FB, Luggen ME, Mejias E, Silverman SL, Makkena R, Alepa FP, Buxbaum J, Haakenson CM, Ward RH, Manaster BJ, Anderson RJ, Ward JR, Henderson WG (1996) Comparison of sulfasalazine and placebo in the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis. A department of veterans affairs cooperative study. Arthritis Rheum 39:2004–2012PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Cloutier JF, Veillette A (1999) Cooperative inhibition of t-cell antigen receptor signaling by a complex between a kinase and a phosphatase. J Exp Med 189:111–121PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Cohen SB, Dore RK, Lane NE, Ory PA, Peterfy CG, Sharp JT, van der Heijde D, Zhou L, Tsuji W, Newmark R (2008) Denosumab treatment effects on structural damage, bone mineral density, and bone turnover in rheumatoid arthritis: A twelve-month, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase ii clinical trial. Arthritis Rheum 58:1299–1309 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Colmegna I, Diaz-Borjon A, Fujii H, Schaefer L, Goronzy JJ, Weyand CM (2008) Defective proliferative capacity and accelerated telomeric loss of hematopoietic progenitor cells in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 58:990–1000 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Cutolo M., Lahita R.G. (2005) Estrogens and arthritis. Rheum Dis Clin N Am 31:19–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Daoussis D, Liossis SN, Solomou EE, Tsanaktsi A, Bounia K, Karampetsou M, Yiannopoulos G, Andonopoulos AP (2010) Evidence that dkk-1 is dysfunctional in ankylosing spondylitis. Arthritis Rheum 62:150–158 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. David JP, Schett G (2010) Tnf and bone. Curr Dir Autoimmun 11:135–144 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Davis JC, Jr., Van Der Heijde D, Braun J, Dougados M, Cush J, Clegg DO, Kivitz A, Fleischmann R, Inman R, Tsuji W (2003) Recombinant human tumor necrosis factor receptor (etanercept) for treating ankylosing spondylitis: A randomized, controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 48:3230–3236 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. de Vries-Bouwstra J, Le Cessie S, Allaart C, Breedveld F, Huizinga T (2006) Using predicted disease outcome to provide differentiated treatment of early rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 33:1747–1753PubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. Diarra D, Stolina M, Polzer K, Zwerina J, Ominsky MS, Dwyer D, Korb A, Smolen J, Hoffmann M, Scheinecker C, van der Heide D, Landewe R, Lacey D, Richards WG, Schett G (2007) Dickkopf-1 is a master regulator of joint remodeling. Nat Med 13:156–163 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Dong W, Zhang Y, Yan M, Liu H, Chen Z, Zhu P (2008) Upregulation of 78-kda glucose-regulated protein in macrophages in peripheral joints of active ankylosing spondylitis. Scand J Rheumatol 37:427–434 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Dougados M, vam der Linden S, Leirisalo-Repo M, Huitfeldt B, Juhlin R, Veys E, Zeidler H, Kvien TK, Olivieri I, Dijkmans B, et al. (1995) Sulfasalazine in the treatment of spondylarthropathy. A randomized, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arthritis Rheum 38:618–627PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. François RJ, Neure L, Sieper J, Braun J (2006) Immunohistological examination of open sacroiliac biopsies of patients with ankylosing spondylitis: Detection of tumour necrosis factor α in two patients with early disease and transforming growth factor β in three more advanced cases. Ann Rheum Dis 65:713–720 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Franklin EC, Molman HR, Muller-Eberhard HJ, Kunkel HB (1957) An unusual protein component of high molecular weight in the serum of certain patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Exp Med 105:425–435PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Furuzawa-Carballeda J, Vargas-Rojas MI, Cabral AR (2007) Autoimmune inflammation from the th17 perspective. Autoimmun Rev 6:169–175 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Gabriel S, Michaud K (2009) Epidemiological studies in incidence, prevalence, mortality, and comorbidity of the rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Res Ther 11:229. doi: 10.1186/ar2669Google Scholar
  36. Gaujoux-Viala C, Smolen JS, Landewé R, Dougados M, Kvien TK, Mola EM, Scholte-Voshaar M, van Riel P, Gossec L (2010) Current evidence for the management of rheumatoid arthritis with synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: A systematic literature review informing the eular recommendations for the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 69:1004–1009PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Ghozlani I, Ghazi M, Nouijai A, Mounach A, Rezqi A, Achemlal L, Bezza A, Maghraoui AE (2009) Prevalence and risk factors of osteoporosis and vertebral fractures in patients with ankylosing spondylitis. Bone 44:772–776PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Girbal-Neuhauser E, Durieux J-J, Arnaud M, Dalbon P, Sebbag M, Vincent C, Simon M, Senshu T, Masson-Bessiere C, Jolivet-Reynaud C, Jolivet M, Serre G (1999) The epitopes targeted by the rheumatoid arthritis-associated antifilaggrin autoantibodies are posttranslationally generated on various sites of (pro)filaggrin by deimination of arginine residues. J Immunol 162:585–594PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. Glant TT, Mikecz K, Arzoumanian A, Poole AR (1987) Proteoglycan-induced arthritis in balb/c mice. Clinical features and histopathology. Arthritis Rheum 30:201–212PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Goie The HS, Steven MM, van der Linden SM, Cats A (1985) Evaluation of diagnostic criteria for ankylosing spondylitis: A comparison of the rome, new york and modified new york criteria in patients with a positive clinical history screening test for ankylosing spondylitis. Br J Rheumatol 24:242–249PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Gorman JD, Sack KE, Davis JC, Jr. (2002) Treatment of ankylosing spondylitis by inhibition of tumor necrosis factor alpha. N Engl J Med 346:1349–1356 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Gregersen PK, Silver J, Winchester RJ (1987) The shared epitope hypothesis. An approach to understanding the molecular genetics of susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 30:1205–1213PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Gu MM, Yuan WT, Yang JQ, Zhang J, Xiong XY, Yao FJ, Lu ZY, Wang ZG, Huang W, Fan LA (2004) A genomewide scan for the susceptibility gene loci to ankylosing spondylitis in chinese han population. Yi Chuan Xue Bao 31:217–220PubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. Harrison MJ, Tricker KJ, Davies L, Hassell A, Dawes P, Scott DL, Knight S, Davis M, Mulherin D, Symmons DPM (2005) The relationship between social deprivation, disease outcome measures, and response to treatment in patients with stable, long-standing rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 32:2330–2336PubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. Hetland ML, Ejbjerg B, Horslev-Petersen K, Jacobsen S, Vestergaard A, Jurik AG, Stengaard-Pedersen K, Junker P, Lottenburger T, Hansen I, Andersen LS, Tarp U, Skjodt H, Pedersen JK, Majgaard O, Svendsen AJ, Ellingsen T, Lindegaard H, Christensen AF, Vallo J, Torfing T, Narvestad E, Thomsen HS, Ostergaard M, and the Csg (2009) Mri bone oedema is the strongest predictor of subsequent radiographic progression in early rheumatoid arthritis. Results from a 2-year randomised controlled trial (cimestra). Ann Rheum Dis 68:384–390 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Ince G, Sarpel T, Durgun B, Erdogan S (2006) Effects of a multimodal exercise program for people with ankylosing spondylitis. Phys Ther 86:924–935PubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. Jarvinen P (1995) Occurrence of ankylosing spondylitis in a nationwide series of twins. Arthritis Rheum 38:381–383PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Jørgensen KT, Wiik A, Pedersen M, Hedegaard CJ, Vestergaard BF, Gislefoss RE, Kvien TK, Wohlfahrt J, Bendtzen K, Frisch M (2008) Cytokines, autoantibodies and viral antibodies in premorbid and postdiagnostic sera from patients with rheumatoid arthritis: Case–control study nested in a cohort of norwegian blood donors. Ann Rheum Dis 67:860–866 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Kaltenhauser S, Pierer M, Arnold S, Kamprad M, Baerwald C, Hantzschel H, Wagner U (2007) Antibodies against cyclic citrullinated peptide are associated with the drb1 shared epitope and predict joint erosion in rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatol 46:100–104 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Khan M.A. (2000) Update: The twenty subtypes of hla-b27. Curr Opin Rheumatol 12:235–238PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Kidd BL, Cawley MI (1988) Delay in diagnosis of spondarthritis. Br J Rheumatol 27:230–232PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Kim N, Kadono Y, Takami M, Lee J, Lee SH, Okada F, Kim JH, Kobayashi T, Odgren PR, Nakano H, Yeh WC, Lee SK, Lorenzo JA, Choi Y (2005) Osteoclast differentiation independent of the trance-rank-traf6 axis. J Exp Med 202:589–595 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Klareskog L, Padyukov L, Alfredsson L (2007) Smoking as a trigger for inflammatory rheumatic diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol 19:49–54 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Klareskog L, Padyukov L, Rönnelid J, Alfredsson L (2006) Genes, environment and immunity in the development of rheumatoid arthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 18:650–655 Google Scholar
  55. Kobayashi K, Takahashi N, Jimi E, Udagawa N, Takami M, Kotake S, Nakagawa N, Kinosaki M, Yamaguchi K, Shima N, Yasuda H, Morinaga T, Higashio K, Martin TJ, Suda T (2000) Tumor necrosis factor alpha stimulates osteoclast differentiation by a mechanism independent of the odf/rankl-rank interaction. J Exp Med 191:275–286PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Kollnberger S, Bird LA, Roddis M, Hacquard-Bouder C, Kubagawa H, Bodmer HC, Breban M, McMichael AJ, Bowness P (2004) Hla-b27 heavy chain homodimers are expressed in hla-b27 transgenic rodent models of spondyloarthritis and are ligands for paired ig-like receptors. J Immunol 173:1699–1710 PubMedGoogle Scholar
  57. Lambert RG, Salonen D, Rahman P, Inman RD, Wong RL, Einstein SG, Thomson GT, Beaulieu A, Choquette D, Maksymowych WP (2007) Adalimumab significantly reduces both spinal and sacroiliac joint inflammation in patients with ankylosing spondylitis: A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arthritis Rheum 56:4005–4014 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Lau C.S., Burgos-Vargas R., Louthrenoo W., Mok M.Y., Wordsworth P, Zeng QY (1998) Features of spondyloarthritis around the world. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 24:753–770PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. Laval SH, Timms A, Edwards S, Bradbury L, Brophy S, Milicic A, Rubin L, Siminovitch KA, Weeks DE, Calin A, Wordsworth BP, Brown MA (2001) Whole-genome screening in ankylosing spondylitis: Evidence of non-mhc genetic-susceptibility loci. AJHG 68:918–926 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Leadbetter EA, Rifkin IR, Hohlbaum AM, Beaudette BC, Shlomchik MJ, Marshak-Rothstein A (2002) Chromatin-igg complexes activate b cells by dual engagement of igm and toll-like receptors. Nature 416:603–607PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Lu X, Gilbert L, He X, Rubin J, Nanes MS (2006) Transcriptional regulation of the osterix (osx, sp7) promoter by tumor necrosis factor identifies disparate effects of mitogen-activated protein kinase and nf kappa b pathways. J Biol Chem 281:6297–6306 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Lundy S, Sarkar S, Tesmer L, Fox D (2007) Cells of the synovium in rheumatoid arthritis. T lymphocytes. Arthritis Res Ther 9:202PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Machold KP, Stamm TA, Eberl GJM, Nell VKP, Dunky A, Uffmann M, Smolen JS (2002) Very recent onset arthritis – clinical, laboratory, and radiological findings during the first year of disease. J Rheumatol 29:2278–2287PubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. Magrey M, Khan MA (2010) Osteoporosis in ankylosing spondylitis. Curr Rheumatol Rep 12:332–336 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Maksymowych WP, Jhangri GS, Fitzgerald AA, LeClercq S, Chiu P, Yan A, Skeith KJ, Aaron SL, Homik J, Davis P, Sholter D, Russell AS (2002) A six-month randomized, controlled, double-blind, dose-response comparison of intravenous pamidronate (60mg versus 10mg) in the treatment of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug-refractory ankylosing spondylitis. Arthritis Rheum 46:766–773 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Manfredsdottir VF, Vikingsdottir T, Jonsson T, Geirsson AJ, Kjartansson O, Heimisdottir M, Sigurdardottir SL, Valdimarsson H, Vikingsson A (2006) The effects of tobacco smoking and rheumatoid factor seropositivity on disease activity and joint damage in early rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology 45:734–740 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Mikecz K, Glant TT, Baron M, Poole AR (1988) Isolation of proteoglycan-specific t lymphocytes from patients with ankylosing spondylitis. Cell Immunol 112:55–63PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Möttönen T, Hannonen P, Leirisalo-Repo M, Nissilä M, Kautiainen H, Korpela M, Laasonen L, Julkunen H, Luukkainen R, Vuori K, Paimela L, Blåfield H, Hakala M, Ilva K, Yli-Kerttula U, Puolakka K, Järvinen P, Hakola M, Piirainen H, Ahonen J, Pälvimäki I, Forsberg S, Koota K, Friman C (1999) Comparison of combination therapy with single-drug therapy in early rheumatoid arthritis: A randomised trial. Lancet 353:1568–1573PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Nakamura I, Kadono Y, Takayanagi H, Jimi E, Miyazaki T, Oda H, Nakamura K, Tanaka S, Rodan GA, Duong le T (2002) Il-1 regulates cytoskeletal organization in osteoclasts via tnf receptor-associated factor 6/c-src complex. J Immunol 168:5103–5109PubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. Nam JL, Winthrop KL, van Vollenhoven RF, Pavelka K, Valesini G, Hensor EMA, Worthy G, Landewé R, Smolen JS, Emery P, Buch MH (2010) Current evidence for the management of rheumatoid arthritis with biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: A systematic literature review informing the eular recommendations for the management of ra. Ann Rheum Dis doi:10.1136/ard.2009.126573Google Scholar
  71. Neidhart M, Baraliakos X, Seemayer C, Zelder C, Gay RE, Michel BA, Boehm H, Gay S, Braun J (2009) Expression of cathepsin k and matrix metalloproteinase 1 indicate persistent osteodestructive activity in long-standing ankylosing spondylitis. Ann Rheum Dis 68:1334–1339 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Nepom GT (1989) Hla genes associated with rheumatoid arthritis: Identification of susceptibility alleles using specific oligonucleotide probes. Arthritis Rheum 32:15–21PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. O’Dell JR, Leff R, Paulsen G, Haire C, Mallek J, Eckhoff PJ, Fernandez A, Blakely K, Wees S, Stoner J, Hadley S, Felt J, Palmer W, Waytz P, Churchill M, Klassen L, Moore G (2002) Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine, methotrexate and sulfasalazine, or a combination of the three medications: Results of a two-year, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 46:1164–1170PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. Rashid T, Ebringer A (2007) Ankylosing spondylitis is linked to klebsiella – the evidence. Clin Rheumatol 26:858–864 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Rath HC, Herfarth HH, Ikeda JS, Grenther WB, Hamm TE, Balish E, Taurog JD, Hammer RE, Wilson KH, Sartor RB (1996) Normal luminal bacteria, especially bacteroides species, mediate chronic colitis, gastritis, and arthritis in hla-b27/human beta2 microglobulin transgenic rats. J Clin Invest 98:945–953PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Rauner M, Stupphann D, Haas M, Fert I, Glatigny S, Sipos W, Breben M, Pietschmann P (2009) The hla-b27 transgenic rat, a model of spondyloarthritis, has decreased bone mineral density and increased rankl to osteoprotegerin mrna ratio. J Rheumatol 36:120–126PubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. Raza K, Falciani F, Curnow SJ, Ross E, Lee C-Y, Akbar A, Lord J, Gordon C, Buckley C, Salmon M (2005) Early rheumatoid arthritis is characterized by a distinct and transient synovial fluid cytokine profile of t cell and stromal cell origin. Arthritis Res Ther 7:R784–R795PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. Rothschild BM, Turner KR, DeLuca MA (1988) Symmetrical erosive peripheral polyarthritis in the late archaic period of alabama. Science 241:1498–1501PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. Sanmartí R, Gómez-Centeno A, Ercilla G, Larrosa M, Viñas O, Vazquez I, Gómez-Puerta J, Gratacós J, Salvador G, Cañete J (2007) Prognostic factors of radiographic progression in early rheumatoid arthritis: A two year prospective study after a structured therapeutic strategy using dmards and very low doses of glucocorticoids. Clin Rheumatol 26:1111–1118PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. Schlosstein L, Terasaki PI, Bluestone R, Pearson CM (1973) High association of an hl-a antigen, w27, with ankylosing spondylitis. NEJM 288:704–706PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Stamp LK, O’Donnell JL, Chapman PT, Zhang M, Frampton C, James J, Barclay ML (2009) Determinants of red blood cell methotrexate polyglutamate concentrations in rheumatoid arthritis patients receiving long-term methotrexate treatment. Arthritis Rheum 60:2248–2256PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Taurog JD, Hammer RE (1995) Experimental spondyloarthropathy in hla-b27 transgenic rats. Clin Rheumatol 15 (Suppl 1):22–27Google Scholar
  83. Turesson C, Matteson EL (2009) Vasculitis in rheumatoid arthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 21:35–40 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. Van den Bosch F, Baeten D, Kruithof E, De Keyser F, Mielants H, Veys EM (2001) Treatment of active spondyloarthropathy with infliximab, the chimeric monoclonal antibody to tumour necrosis factor alpha. Ann Rheum Dis 60 Suppl 3:iii33–36Google Scholar
  85. van der Heijde D, Dijkmans B, Geusens P, Sieper J, DeWoody K, Williamson P, Braun J (2005) Efficacy and safety of infliximab in patients with ankylosing spondylitis: Results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial (assert). Arthritis Rheum 52:582–591PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. van der Heijde D, Kivitz A, Schiff MH, Sieper J, Dijkmans BA, Braun J, Dougados M, Reveille JD, Wong RL, Kupper H, Davis JC, Jr. (2006) Efficacy and safety of adalimumab in patients with ankylosing spondylitis: Results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 54:2136–2146 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. van der Heijde D, Salonen D, Weissman BN, Landewe R, Maksymowych WP, Kupper H, Ballal S, Gibson E, Wong R (2009) Assessment of radiographic progression in the spines of patients with ankylosing spondylitis treated with adalimumab for up to 2 years. Arthritis Res Ther 11:R127. doi:10.1186/ar2794 Google Scholar
  88. van der Helm-van Mil A.H.M., Huizinga T.W.J., de Vries R.R.P., Toes R.E.M. (2007) Emerging patterns of risk factor make-up enable subclassification of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 56:1728–1735PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. van der Helm-van Mil A.H.M., Huizinga T.W.J., Schreuder G.M. Th., Breedveld F.C., de Vries R.R.P., Toes R.E.M. (2005) An independent role of protective hla class ii alleles in rheumatoid arthritis severity and susceptibility. Arthritis Rheum 52:2637–2644PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. van der Linden SM, Valkenburg HA, de Jongh BM, Cats A (1984) The risk of developing ankylosing spondylitis in hla-b27 positive individuals. A comparison of relatives of spondylitis patients with the general population. Arthritis Rheum 27:241–249PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. van Staa TP, Geusens P, Bijlsma JW, Leufkens HG, Cooper C (2006) Clinical assessment of the long-term risk of fracture in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 54 :3104–3112 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. Wagner UG, Koetz K, Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ (1998) Perturbation of the t cell repertoire in rheumatoid arthritis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:14447–14452PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. Wesoly J., van der Helm-van Mil A.H.M., Toes R.E.M., Chokkalingam A.P., Carlton V.E.H., Begovich A.B., Huizinga T.W.J. (2005) Association of the <i>ptpn22</i> c1858t single-nucleotide polymorphism with rheumatoid arthritis phenotypes in an inception cohort. Arthritis Rheum 52:2948–2950PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. Weyand CM, Hicok KC, Conn DL, Goronzy JJ (1992) The influence of hla-drb1 genes on disease severity in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Intern Med 117:801–803PubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. Zhang G, Luo J, Bruckel J, Weisman MA, Schumacher HR, Khan MA, Inman RD, Mahowald M, Maksymowych WP, Martin TM, Yu DTY, Stone M, Rosenbaum JT, Newman P, Lee J, McClain JA, West OC, Jin L, Reveille JD (2004) Genetic studies in familial ankylosing spondylitis susceptibility. Arthritis Rheum 50:2246–2254PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. Zochling J, van der Heijde D, Dougados M, Braun J (2006) Current evidence for the management of ankylosing spondylitis: A systematic literature review for the asas/eular management recommendations in ankylosing spondylitis. Ann Rheum Dis 65:423–432 PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Zvaifler NJ (1973) The immunopathology of joint inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis. Adv Immunol 16:265–336PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Wien NewYork 2012

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Rheumatology Department, Waikato HospitalUniversity of AucklandHamiltonNew Zealand

Personalised recommendations