Limiting Apoptosis as a Strategy for CNS Neuroprotection

  • K. K. W. Wang
Chapter
Part of the Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology book series (HEP, volume 155)

Abstract

The term necrosis is a Greek word meaning “deadness.” A contemporary definition of necrosis is the sum of morphological changes indicative of cell death (Majno and Joris 1995). Necrosis usually applies to cell death that occurs to a group of cells or part of an organ in vivo, but the term has more recently been applied to cells in culture. Necrosis is the form of cell death which usually occurs when cells were injured by extreme physical stress or chemical challenges to the point that is beyond repair. As a result of the presence of massive ion influx (e.g., Na+, Ca2+), early and marked mitochondria swelling and cell swelling (oncosis) characterize necrosis (Majno and Joris 1995; Trump et al. 1997) (Fig. 1). Nonspecific DNA breakage results in the formation of chromatin fragments (in a punctuate fashion) all over the nuclei. Eventually, the nuclei become leaky and ultimately the plasma membrane ruptures. At least under in vitro conditions, necrosis is rapid and the time course of cell death is usually within 1–5-h death (Majno and Joris 1995).

Keywords

Neuronal Apoptosis Spinal Muscular Atrophy Cereb Blood Flow Cerebellar Granule Neuron Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Adams JM, Cory S (1998) The Bcl-2 protein family: arbiters of cell survival. Science 281:1322–1326PubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. Ahuja HS, Zhu Y, Zakeri Z (1997) Association of cyclin-dependent kinase 5, its activator p35 with apoptotic cell death. Dev Genet 21:258–267PubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. Anglade P, Vyas S, Javoy-Agid F, Herrero MT, Michel PP, Marquez J, Mouatt-Prigent A, Ruberg M, Hirsch EC, Agid Y (1997) Apoptosis, autophagy in nigral neurons of patients with Parkinson’s disease. Histol Histopathol 12:25–31PubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. Ankarcrona M, Dypbukt JM, Bonfoco E, Zhivotovsky B, Orrenius S, Lipton SA, Nicotera, P (1995) Glutamate-induced neuronal death: a succession of necrosis or apoptosis depending on mitochondrial function. Neuron 15:961–973PubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. Ashkenazi A, Dixit VM (1998) Death receptors: signaling, modulation. Science 281: 1305–1308PubMedGoogle Scholar
  6. Bajaj NP, Al-Sarraj ST, Erson V, Kibble M, Leigh N, Miller CC (1998) Cyclin dependent kinase-5 is associated with lipofuscin in motor neurones in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurosci Lett 245:45–48PubMedGoogle Scholar
  7. Beer R, Franz G, Krajewski S, Pike BR, Hayes RL, Reed JC, Wang KK, Klimmer C, Schmutzhard E, Poewe W, Kampfl A (2001) Temporal and spatial profile of caspase 8 expression and proteolysis after experimental traumatic brain injury. J Neurochem 78:862–873PubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. Beer R, Franz G, Schopf M, Reindl M, Zeiger B, Schmutzhard E, Poewe W, Kampfl A (2000) Expression of Fas and Fas ligand after experimental traumatic brain injury in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 20:669–677PubMedGoogle Scholar
  9. Bonfoco E, Krainc D, Ankarcrona M, Nicotera P, Lipton SA (1995) Apoptosis, necrosis: two distinct events induced, respectively, by mild, intense insults with N-methyl-D-aspartate or nitric oxide/superoxide in cortical cell cultures. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:7162–7166PubMedGoogle Scholar
  10. Bonfoco E, Leist M, Zhivotovsky B, Orrenius S, Lipton SA, Nicotera P (1996) Cytoskeletal breakdown, apoptosis elicited by NO donors in cerebellar granule cells require NMDA receptor activation. J Neurochem 67:2484–2493PubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. Botchkina GI, Meistrell M, Botchkina IL, Tracey KJ (1997) Expression of TNF, TNF receptors (p55, p75) in the rat brain after focal cerebral ischemia Mol Med 3:765–781PubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. Bradham CA, Qian T, Streetz K, Trautwein C, Brenner DA, Lemasters JJ (1998) The mitochondrial permeability transition is required for tumor necrosis factor α-mediated apoptosis, cytochrome c release. Mol Cell Biol 18:6353–6364PubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. Brunet A, Datta SR, Greenberg ME (2001)Transcription-dependent and -independent control of neuronal survival by the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Curr Opin Neurobiol 11:297–305PubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. Canu N, Dus L, Barbato C, Ciotti MT, Brancolini C, Rinaldi AM, Novak M, Cattaneo A, Bradbury A, Calissano P (1998) τ cleavage, dephosphorylation in cerebellar granule neurons undergoing apoptosis J Neurosci 18:7061–7074PubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. Cardone MH, Roy N, Stennicke HR, Salvesen GS, Franke TF, Stanbridge E, Frisch S, Reed JC (1998) Regulation of cell death protease caspase-9 by phosphorylation. Science 282:1318–1321PubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. Charriaut-Marlangue C, Margaill I Plotkine M, Ben-Ari Y (1995) Early endonuclease activation following reversible focal ischemia in the rat brain J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 15:385–388PubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. Chen J, Jin K, Chen M Pei W, Kawaguchi K, Greenberg DA, Simon RP (1997) Early detection of DNA strand breaks in the brain after transient focal ischemia: implications for the role of DNA damage in apoptosis, neuronal cell death. J Neurochem 69:232–245PubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. Chen J, Nagayama T, Jin K, Stetler RA, Zhu RL, Graham SH, Simon RP (1998) Induction of caspase-3-like protease may mediate delayed neuronal death in the hippocampus after transient cerebral ischemia. J Neurosci 18:4914–4928PubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. Cheng EH, Kirsch DG, Clem RJ, Ravi R, Kastan MB, Bedi A, Ueno K, Hardwick JM (1997) Conversion of Bcl-2 to a Bax-like death effector by caspases. Science 278: 1966–1968PubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. Choi DW (1996) Ischemia-induced neuronal apoptosis. Curr Opin Neurobiol 6:667–72PubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. Clemens JA, Stephenson DT, Smalstig EB, Dixon EP, Little SP (1997) Global ischemia activates nuclear factor-κ B in forebrain neurons of rats. Stroke 28:1073–80; discussion 1080–1081PubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. Coffer PJ, Jin J, Woodgett JR (1998) Protein kinase B (c-Akt): a multifunctional mediator of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activation. Biochem J 335:1–13PubMedGoogle Scholar
  23. Cookson MR, Ince PG, Shaw PJ (1998) Peroxynitrite, hydrogen peroxide induced cell death in the NSC34 neuroblastoma x spinal cord cell line: role of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. J Neurochem 70:501–508PubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. Cotman CW, Person AJ (1995) A potential role for apoptosis in neurodegeneration, Alzheimer’s disease. Mol Neurobiol 10:19–45PubMedGoogle Scholar
  25. Crowder RJ, Freeman RS (1998) Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Akt protein kinase are necessary, sufficient for the survival of nerve growth factor-dependent sympathetic neurons. J Neurosci 18:2933–2943PubMedGoogle Scholar
  26. Datta SR, Dudek H, Tao X, Masters S, Fu H, Gotoh Y, Greenberg ME (1997) Akt phosphorylation of BAD couples survival signals to the cell- intrinsic death machinery. Cell 91:231–241PubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. Deckert-Schluter M, Bluethmann H, Rang A, Hof H, Schluter D (1998) Crucial role of TNF receptor type 1 (p55), but not of TNF receptor type 2 (p75), in murine toxoplasmosis. J Immunol 160:3427–3436PubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. Deckwerth TL, Elliott JL, Knudson CM, Johnson E, JR Snider WD, Korsmeyer SJ (1996) BAX is required for neuronal death after trophic factor deprivation, during development. Neuron 17:401–411PubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. Deckwerth TL, Johnson E, JR (1993) Temporal analysis of events associated with programmed cell death (apoptosis) of sympathetic neurons deprived of nerve growth factor. J Cell Biol 123:1207–1222PubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. del Peso L, Gonzalez-Garcia M, Page C, Herrera R, Nunez G (1997) Interleukin-3 induced phosphorylation of BAD through the protein kinase Akt. Science 278: 687–689PubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. Delic J, Masdehors P, Omura S, Cosset JM, Dumont J, Binet JL, Magdelenat H (1998) The proteasome inhibitor lactacystin induces apoptosis, sensitizes chemo-, radioresistant human chronic lymphocytic leukaemia lymphocytes to TNF-α-initiated apoptosis. Br J Cancer 77:1103–1107PubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. Dessi F, Charriaut-Marlangue C, Khrestchatisky M, Ben-Ari Y (1993) Glutamate-induced neuronal death is not a programmed cell death in cerebellar culture. J Neurochem 60:1953–1955PubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. Drexler HC (1997) Activation of the cell death program by inhibition of proteasome function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:855–860PubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. Du Y, Dodel RC, Bales KR, Jemmerson R, Hamilton-Byrd E, Paul SM (1997a) Involvement of a caspase-3-like cysteine protease in 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium-mediated apoptosis of cultured cerebellar granule neurons. J Neurochem 69:1382–1388PubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. Du Y, Bales KR, Dodel RC, Hamilton-Byrd E, Horn JW, Czilli DL, Simmons LK, Ni B, Paul SM (1997b) Activation of a caspase 3-related cysteine protease is required for glutamate-mediated apoptosis of cultured cerebellar granule neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:11657–11662PubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. Duan H, Dixit VM (1997) RAIDD is a new “death” adaptor molecule. Nature 385:86–89PubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. Dudek H, Datta SR, Franke TF, Birnbaum MJ, Yao R, Cooper GM, Segal RA, Kaplan DR, Greenberg ME (1997) Regulation of neuronal survival by the serine-threonine protein kinase Akt (see comments). Science 275:661–665PubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. Eder J (1997) Tumour necrosis factor α, interleukin 1 signalling: do MAPKK kinases connect it all? Trends Pharmacol Sci 18:319–322PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. Eldadah BA, Faden AI (2000) Caspase pathways, neuronal apoptosis, and CNS injury. J Neurotrauma 17:811–17829PubMedGoogle Scholar
  40. Emery E, Aldana P, Bunge MB, Puckett W, Srinivasan A, Keane RW, Bethea J, Levi AD (1998) Apoptosis after traumatic human spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 89: 911–920PubMedGoogle Scholar
  41. Endres M, Namura S, Shimizu-Sasamata M, Waeber C, Zhang L, Gomez-Isla T, Hyman BT, Moskowitz MA (1998) Attenuation of delayed neuronal death after mild focal ischemia in mice by inhibition of the caspase family. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18:238–247PubMedGoogle Scholar
  42. Estus S (1998) Gene induction, neuronal apoptosis In: Mattson EMP (ed) Neuroprotective Signal Transduction. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, pp 84–94Google Scholar
  43. Evan G, Littlewood T (1998) A matter of life, cell death Science 281:1317–1322Google Scholar
  44. Filipkowski RK, Hetman M, Kaminska B, Kaczmarek L (1994) DNA fragmentation in rat brain after intraperitoneal administration of kainate Neuroreport 5:1538–1540PubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. Friberg H, Ferrand-Drake M, Bengtsson F, Halestrap AP, Wieloch T (1998) Cyclosporin A, but not FK 506, protects mitochondria, neurons against hypoglycemic damage, implicates the mitochondrial permeability transition in cell death. J Neurosci 18: 5151–5159PubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. Garcia-Calvo M, Peterson EP, Leiting B, Ruel R, Nicholson DW, Thornberry NA (1998) Inhibition of human caspases by peptide-based, macromolecular inhibitors. J Biol Chem 273:32608–32613PubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. Gleichmann M, Beinroth S, Reed JC, Krajewski S, Schulz JB, Wullner U, Klockgether T, Weiler M (1998) Potassium deprivation-induced apoptosis of cerebellar granule neurons: cytochrome c release in the absence of altered expression of Bcl-2 family proteins. Cell Physiol Biochem 8:194–201PubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. Gottron FJ, Ying HS, Choi DW (1997) Caspase inhibition selectively reduces the apoptotic component of oxygen-glucose deprivation-induced cortical neuronal cell death Mol Cell Neurosci 9:159–169PubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. Green DR, Reed JC (1998) Mitochondria, apoptosis. Science 281:1309–1312PubMedGoogle Scholar
  50. Greenlund LJ, Deckwerth TL, Johnson E, JR (1995) Superoxide dismutase delays neuronal apoptosis: a role for reactive oxygen species in programmed neuronal death. Neuron 14:303–315PubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. Guay J, Lambert H, Gingras-Breton G, Lavoie JN, Huot J, Landry J (1997) Regulation of actin filament dynamics by p38 map kinase-mediated phosphorylation of heat shock protein 27. J Cell Sci 110:357–368PubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. Gwag BJ, Lobner D, Koh JY, Wie MB, Choi DW (1995) Blockade of glutamate receptors unmasks neuronal apoptosis after oxygen-glucose deprivation in vitro. Neuroscience 68:615–619PubMedGoogle Scholar
  53. Hajimohammadreza I, Raser KJ, Nath R, Nadimpalli R, Scott M, Wang KK (1997) Neuronal nitric oxide synthase, calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IIα undergo neurotoxin induced proteolysis. J Neurochem 69:1006–1013PubMedGoogle Scholar
  54. Hakem R, Hakem A, Duncan GS, Henderson JT, Woo M, Soengas MS, Elia A, de la Pompa JL, Kagi D, Khoo W, Potter J, Yoshida R, Kaufman SA, Lowe SW, Penninger JM, Mak TW (1998) Differential requirement for caspase 9 in apoptotic pathways in vivo. Cell 94:339–352PubMedGoogle Scholar
  55. Hara H, Friedlander RM, Gagliardini V, Ayata C, Fink K, Huang Z, Shimizu-Sasamata M, Yuan J, Moskowitz MA (1997) Inhibition of interleukin 1β converting enzyme family proteases reduces ischemic, excitotoxic neuronal damage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:2007–2012PubMedGoogle Scholar
  56. Hegde R, Srinivasula SM, Ahmad M, Fernandes-Alnemri T, Alnemri ES (1998) Blk, a BH3-containing mouse protein that interacts with Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, is a potent death agonist. J Biol Chem 273:7783–7786PubMedGoogle Scholar
  57. Heidenreich KA, Kummer JL (1996) Inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase by insulin in cultured fetal neuron. J Biol Chem 271:9891–9894PubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. Heron A, Pollard H, Dessi F, Moreau J, Lasbennes F, Ben-Ari Y, Charriaut-Marlangue C (1993) Regional variability in DNA fragmentation after global ischemia evidenced by combined histological, gel electrophoresis observations in the rat brain. J Neurochem 61:1973–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. Himi T, Ishizaki Y, Murota S (1998) A caspase inhibitor blocks ischaemia-induced delayed neuronal death in the gerbil. Eur J Neurosci 10:777–781PubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. Hortelano S, Dallaporta B, Zamzami N, Hirsch T, Susin SA, Marzo I, Bosca L, Kroemer G (1997) Nitric oxide induces apoptosis via triggering mitochondrial permeability transition. Febs Lett 410:373–377PubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. Hsu H, Xiong J, Goeddel DV (1995) The TNF receptor 1-associated protein TRADD signals cell death, NF-κB activation. Cell 81:495–504PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. Hu Y, Benedict MA, Wu D, Inohara N, Nunez G (1998) Bcl-XL interacts with Apaf-1, inhibits Apaf-1-dependent caspase-9 activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 4386–4391PubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. Jaeschke H, Fisher MA, Lawson JA, Simmons CA, Farhood A, Jones DA (1998) Activation of caspase 3 (CPP32)-like proteases is essential for TNF-α-induced hepatic parenchymal cell apoptosis, neutrophil-mediated necrosis in a murine endotoxin shock model. J Immunol 160:3480–3486PubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. Janicke RU, Ng P, Sprengart ML, Porter AG (1998) Caspase-3 is required for α fodrin cleavage but dispensable for cleavage of other death substrates in apoptosis. J Biol Chem 273:15540–15545PubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. Jiang Y, Chen C, Li Z, Guo W, Gegner JA, Lin S, Han J (1996) Characterization of the structure, function of a new mitogen- activated protein kinase (p38β). J Biol Chem 271:17920–17926PubMedGoogle Scholar
  66. Jordan J, Galindo MF, Miller RJ (1997) Role of calpain-, interleukin-1 β converting enzyme-like proteases in the β-amyloid-induced death of rat hippocampal neurons in culture. J Neurochem 68:1612–1621PubMedGoogle Scholar
  67. Juan TS, McNiece IK, Argento JM, Jenkins NA, Gilbert DJ, Copeland NG, Fletcher FA (1997) Identification, mapping of Casp7, a cysteine protease resembling CPP32 β, interleukin-1 β converting enzyme, CED-3. Genomics 40:86–93PubMedGoogle Scholar
  68. Kauffmann-Zeh A, Rodriguez-Viciana P, Ulrich E, Gilbert C, Coffer P, Downward J, Evan G (1997) Suppression of c-Myc-induced apoptosis by Ras signalling through PI(3)K. PKB Nature 385:544–548Google Scholar
  69. Kaushal GP, Singh AB, Shah SV (1998) Identification of gene family of caspases in rat kidney, altered expression in ischemia-reperfusion injury. Am J Physiol 274:F587–F595Google Scholar
  70. Kawasaki H, Morooka T, Shimohama S, Kimura J, Hirano T, Gotoh Y, Nishida E (1997) Activation, involvement of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in gluta-mate-induced apoptosis in rat cerebellar granule cells. J Biol Chem 272:18518–18521PubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. Keller JN, Kindy MS, Holtsberg FW, St Clair DK, Yen HC, Germeyer A, Steiner SM, Bruce-Keller AJ, Hutchins JB, Mattson MP (1998) Mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase prevents neural apoptosis, reduces ischemic brain injury: suppression of peroxynitrite production, lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial dysfunction. J Neurosci 18:687–697PubMedGoogle Scholar
  72. Kennedy SG, Wagner AJ, Conzen SD, Jordan J, Bellacosa A, Tsichlis PN, Hay N (1997) The PI 3-kinase/Akt signaling pathway delivers an antiapoptotic signal. Genes Dev 11:701–713PubMedGoogle Scholar
  73. Kinoshita M, Tomimoto H, Kinoshita A, Kumar S, Noda M (1997) Up-regulation of the Nedd2 gene encoding an ICE/Ced-3-like cysteine protease in the gerbil brain after transient global ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 17:507–514PubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. Kita T, Liu L, Tanaka N, Kinoshita Y (1997) The expression of tumor necrosis factor α in the rat brain after fluid percussive injury. Int J Legal Med 110:305–311PubMedGoogle Scholar
  75. Kuida K, Haydar TF, Kuan CY, Gu Y, Taya C, Karasuyama H, Su MS, Rakic P, Flavell RA (1998) Reduced apoptosis, cytochrome c-mediated caspase activation in mice, lacking caspase 9. Cell 94:325–337PubMedGoogle Scholar
  76. Kuida K, Zheng TS, Na S, Kuan C, Yang D, Karasuyama H, Rakic P, Flavell RA (1996) Decreased apoptosis in the brain, premature lethality in CPP32- deficient mice. Nature 384:368–372PubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. Kummer JL, Rao PK, Heidenreich KA (1997) Apoptosis induced by withdrawal of trophic factors is mediated by p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. J Biol Chem 272:20490–20494PubMedGoogle Scholar
  78. Kusakawa G, Saito T, Onuki R, Ishiguro K, Kishimoto T, Hisanaga S (2000) Calpain-dependent proteolytic cleavage of the p35 cyclin-dependent kinase 5 activator to p25. J Biol Chem 2;275:17166–17172Google Scholar
  79. Kuwana T, Smith JJ, Muzio M, Dixit V, Newmeyer DD, Kornbluth S (1998) Apoptosis induction by caspase-8 is amplified through the mitochondrial release of cytochrome C. J Biol Chem 273:16589–16594PubMedGoogle Scholar
  80. Lee KY, Qi Z, Yu YP, Wang JH (1997) Neuronal Cdc2-like kinases: neuron-specific forms of Cdk5. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 29:951–958PubMedGoogle Scholar
  81. Lee MS, Kwon YT, Li M, Peng J, Friedlander RM, Tsai LH (2000). Neurotoxicity induces cleavage of p35 to p25 by calpain. Nature 405(6784):360–364PubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. Leist M, Nicotera P (1998) Apoptosis, excitotoxicity, neuropathology. Exp Cell Res 239:183–201PubMedGoogle Scholar
  83. Leist M, Volbracht C, Fava E, Nicotera P (1998) 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium induces autocrine excitotoxicity, protease activation, neuronal apoptosis. Mol Pharmacol 54:789–801PubMedGoogle Scholar
  84. Lemaire C, Reau K, Souvannavong V, Adam A (1998) Inhibition of caspase activity induces a switch from apoptosis to necrosis. Febs Lett 425:266–270PubMedGoogle Scholar
  85. Lemasters JJ, Nieminen AL, Qian T, Trost LC, Elmore SP, Nishimura Y, Crowe RA, Cascio WE, Bradham CA, Brenner DA, Herman B (1998) The mitochondrial permeability transition in cell death: a common mechanism in necrosis, apoptosis, autophagy. Biochim Biophys Acta 1366:177–196PubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. Li Y, Chopp M, Jiang N, Zaloga C (1995) In situ detection of DNA fragmentation after focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 28:164–168PubMedGoogle Scholar
  87. Li H, Zhu H, Xu CJ, Yuan J (1998) Cleavage of BID by caspase 8 mediates the mitochondrial damage in the Fas pathway of apoptosis. Cell 94:491–501PubMedGoogle Scholar
  88. Li P, Nijhawan D, Budihardjo I, Srinivasula SM, Ahmad M, Alnemri ES, Wang X (1997) Cytochrome c, dATP-dependent formation of Apaf-1/caspase-9 complex initiates an apoptotic protease cascade. Cell 91:479–489PubMedGoogle Scholar
  89. Li PA, Uchino H, Elmer E, Siesjo BK (1997) Amelioration by cyclosporin A of brain damage following 5 or 10min of ischemia in rats subjected to preischemic hyperglycemia. Brain Res 753:133–210PubMedGoogle Scholar
  90. Lin KT, Xue JY, Lin MC, Spokas EG, Sun FF, Wong PY (1998) Peroxynitrite induces apoptosis of HL-60 cells by activation of a caspase-3 family protease. Am J Physiol 274:C855–C860Google Scholar
  91. Linnik MD, Zobrist RH, Hatfield MD (1993) Evidence supporting a role for programmed cell death in focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Stroke 24:2002–2008; discussion 2008–2009PubMedGoogle Scholar
  92. Liston P, Roy N, Tamai K, Lefebvre C, Baird S, Cherton-Horvat G, Farahani R, McLean M, Ikeda JE, MacKenzie A, Korneluk, RG (1996) Suppression of apoptosis in mammalian cells by NAIP, a related family of IAP genes. Nature 379:349–353PubMedGoogle Scholar
  93. Litersky JM, Johnson GV (1995) Phosphorylation of τ in situ: inhibition of calcium dependent proteolysis. J Neurochem 65:903–911PubMedGoogle Scholar
  94. Liu ZG, Hsu H, Goeddel DV, Karin M (1996) Dissection of TNF receptor 1 effector functions: JNK activation is not linked to apoptosis while NF-κB activation prevents cell death. Cell 87:565–576PubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. Loddick SA, MacKenzie A, Rothwell NJ (1996) An ICE inhibitor, z-VAD-DCB attenuates ischaemic brain damage in the rat. Neuroreport 7:1465–1468PubMedGoogle Scholar
  96. Lou J, Lenke LG, Ludwig FJ, O’Brien MF (1998) Apoptosis as a mechanism of neuronal cell death following acute experimental spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 36:683–690PubMedGoogle Scholar
  97. Luo X, Budihardjo I, Zou H, Slaughter C, Wang X (1998) Bid, a Bcl2 interacting protein, mediates cytochrome c release from mitochondria in response to activation of cell surface death receptors. Cell 94:481–490PubMedGoogle Scholar
  98. Ma J, Endres M, Moskowitz MA (1998) Synergistic effects of caspase inhibitors, MK 801 in brain injury after transient focal cerebral ischaemia in mice. Br J Pharmacol 124:756–762PubMedGoogle Scholar
  99. Maas J JR, Horstmann S, Borasio GD, Anneser JM, Shooter EM, Kahle PJ (1998) Apoptosis of central, peripheral neurons can be prevented with cyclin-dependent kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitors. J Neurochem 70:1401–1410PubMedGoogle Scholar
  100. MacManus JP, Buchan AM, Hill IE, Rasquinha I, Preston E (1993) Global ischemia can cause DNA fragmentation indicative of apoptosis in rat brain. Neurosci Lett 164:89–92PubMedGoogle Scholar
  101. MacManus JP, Rasquinha I, Black MA, Laferriere NB, Monette R, Walker T, Morley P (1997) Glutamate-treated rat cortical neuronal cultures die in a way different from the classical apoptosis induced by staurosporine. Exp Cell Res 233:310–320PubMedGoogle Scholar
  102. Majno G, Joris I (1995) Apoptosis, oncosis, necrosis An overview of cell death. Am J Pathol 146:3–15PubMedGoogle Scholar
  103. Marzo I, Brenner C, Zamzami N, Jurgensmeier JM, Susin SA, Vieira HL, Prevost MC, Xie Z, Matsuyama S, Reed JC, Kroemer G (1998) Bax, adenine nucleotide translocator cooperate in the mitochondrial control of apoptosis. Science 281:2027–2031PubMedGoogle Scholar
  104. McConkey DJ (1998) Biochemical determinants of apoptosis, necrosis [In Process Citation]. Toxicol Lett 99:157–168PubMedGoogle Scholar
  105. McGinnis KM, Gnegy ME, Wang KK (1999) Endogenous Bax translocation in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells and cerebellar granule neurons undergoing apoptosis. J Neurochem 72:1899–1906PubMedGoogle Scholar
  106. McGinnis KM, Whitton MM, Gnegy ME, Wang KK (1998) Calcium/calmodulin dependent protein kinase IV is cleaved by caspase-3, calpain in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells undergoing apoptosis. J Biol Chem 273:19993–20000PubMedGoogle Scholar
  107. Muzio M, Chinnaiyan AM, Kischkel FC, O’Rourke K, Shevchenko A, Ni J, Scaffidi C, Bretz JD, Zhang M, Gentz R, Mann M, Krammer PH, Peter ME, Dixit VM (1996) FLICE, a novel FADD-homologous ICE/CED-3-like protease, is recruited to the CD95 (Fas/APO-1) death — inducing signaling complex. Cell 85:817–827PubMedGoogle Scholar
  108. Nath R, Davis M, Probert AW, Kupina NC, Ren X, Schielke GP, Wang KK (2000) Processing of cdk5 activator p35 to its truncated form (p25) by calpain in acutely injured neuronal cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 274:16–21PubMedGoogle Scholar
  109. Nath R, Mcginnis K, Dutta S, Shivers B, Wang KKW (2001) Inhibition of p38 kinase mimics survival signal-linked protection against apoptosis in rat cerebellar granule neurons. Cell Mol Biol Lett 6:173–184PubMedGoogle Scholar
  110. Nath R, Probert A, JR, McGinnis KM, Wang KK (1998) Evidence for activation of caspase-3-like protease in excitotoxin-, hypoxia/hypoglycemia-injured neurons. J Neurochem 71:186–195PubMedGoogle Scholar
  111. Nath R, Raser KJ, McGinnis K, Nadimpalli R, Stafford D, Wang KK (1996b) Effects of ICE-like protease, calpain inhibitors on neuronal apoptosis. Neuroreport 8: 249–255PubMedGoogle Scholar
  112. Nath R, Raser KJ, Stafford D, Hajimohammadreza I, Posner A, Allen H, Talanian RV, Yuen P, Gilbertsen RB, Wang KK (1996a) Nonerythroid α-spectrin breakdown by calpain, interleukin 1 β-converting-enzyme-like protease(s) in apoptotic cells: contributory roles of both protease families in neuronal apoptosis. Biochem J 319:683–690PubMedGoogle Scholar
  113. Nawashir H, Martin D, Hallenbeck JM (1997) Neuroprotective effects of TNF binding protein in focal cerebral ischemia. Brain Res 778:265–271Google Scholar
  114. Ni B, Wu X, Du Y, Su Y, Hamilton-Byrd E, Rockey PK, Rosteck P JR, Poirier GG, Paul SM (1996) Cloning, expression of a rat brain interleukin-1β-converting enzyme (ICE)-related protease (IRP), its possible role in apoptosis of cultured cerebellar granule neurons. 1561–1569Google Scholar
  115. Ni B, Wu X, Su Y, Stephenson D, Smalstig EB, Clemens J, Paul SM (1998) Transient global forebrain ischemia induces a prolonged expression of the caspase-3 mRNA in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18: 248–256PubMedGoogle Scholar
  116. Nicotera P, Ankarcrona M, Bonfoco E, Orrenius S, Lipton SA (1997) Neuronal necrosis, apoptosis: two distinct events induced by exposure to glutamate or oxidative stress. Adv Neurol 72:95–101PubMedGoogle Scholar
  117. Oppenheim RW (1991) Cell death during development of the nervous system. Annu Rev Neurosci 14:453–501PubMedGoogle Scholar
  118. Pan G, Humke EW, Dixit VM (1998a) Activation of caspases triggered by cytochrome c. Febs Lett 426:151–154PubMedGoogle Scholar
  119. Pan G, O’Rourke K, Dixit VM (1998b) Caspase-9, Bcl-XL, Apaf-1 form a ternary complex. J Biol Chem 273:5841–5845PubMedGoogle Scholar
  120. Pap M, Cooper GM (1998) Role of glycogen synthase kinase-3 in the phosphatidyli-nositol 3- Kinase/Akt cell survival pathway. J Biol Chem 273:19929–19932PubMedGoogle Scholar
  121. Pastorino JG, Chen ST, Tafani M, Snyder JW, Farber JL (1998) The overexpression of Bax produces cell death upon induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition. J Biol Chem 273:7770–7775PubMedGoogle Scholar
  122. Pei JJ, Grundke-Iqbal I, Iqbal K, Bogdanovic N, Winblad B, Cowburn RF (1998) Accumulation of cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (cdk5) in neurons with early stages of Alzheimer’s disease neurofibrillary degeneration. Brain Res 797:267–277PubMedGoogle Scholar
  123. Peschon JJ, Torrance DS, Stocking KL, Glaccum MB, Otten C, Willis CR, Charrier K, Morrissey PJ, Ware CB, Mohler KM (1998) TNF receptor-deficient mice reveal divergent roles for p55, p75 in several models of inflammation. J Immunol 160: 943–952PubMedGoogle Scholar
  124. Pettmann B, Henderson CE (1998) Neuronal cell death. Neuron 20:633–647PubMedGoogle Scholar
  125. Pike BR, Zhao X, Newcomb JK, Posmantur RM, Wang KK, Hayes RL (1998) Regional calpain, caspase-3 proteolysis of α-spectrin after traumatic brain injury. Neuroreport 9:2437–2442PubMedGoogle Scholar
  126. Pike BR, Zhao X, Newcomb JK, Wang KK, Posmantur RM, Hayes RL (1998) Temporal relationships between de novo protein synthesis, calpain, caspase 3-like protease activation, DNA fragmentation during apoptosis in septo-hippocampal cultures. J Neurosci Res 52:505–520PubMedGoogle Scholar
  127. Pollard H, Charriaut-Marlangue C, Cantagrel S, Represa A, Robain O, Moreau J, Ben-Ari Y (1994) Kainate-induced apoptotic cell death in hippocampal neurons. Neuroscience 63:7–18PubMedGoogle Scholar
  128. Portera-Cailliau C, Price DL, Martin LJ (1997) Excitotoxic neuronal death in the immature brain is an apoptosis- necrosis morphological continuum. J Comp Neurol 378:70–87PubMedGoogle Scholar
  129. Portera-Cailliau C, Price DL, Martin LJ (1997) NonNMDA, NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxic neuronal deaths in adult brain are morphologically distinct: further evidence for an apoptosis-necrosis continuum. J Comp Neurol 378:88–104PubMedGoogle Scholar
  130. Pulera MR, Adams LM, Liu H, Santos DG, Nishimura RN, Yang F, Cole GM, Wasterlain CG, del Zoppo GJ (1998) Apoptosis in a neonatal rat model of cerebral hypoxia-ischemia. Stroke 29:2622–2630PubMedGoogle Scholar
  131. Rink A, Fung KM, Trojanowski JQ, Lee VM, Neugebauer E, Mcintosh TK (1995) Evidence of apoptotic cell death after experimental traumatic brain injury in the rat. Am J Pathol 147:1575–1583PubMedGoogle Scholar
  132. Roy N, Mahadevan MS, McLean M, Shutler G, Yaraghi Z, Farahani R, Baird S, Besner-Johnston A, Lefebvre C, Kang X, et al. (1995) The gene for neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein is partially deleted in individuals with spinal muscular atrophy. Cell 80:167–178PubMedGoogle Scholar
  133. Ruberg M, France-Lanord V, Brugg B, Lambeng N, Michel PP, Anglade P, Hunot S, Damier P, Faucheux B, Hirsch E, Agid Y (1997) [Neuronal death caused by apoptosis in Parkinson disease]. Rev Neurol 153:499–508PubMedGoogle Scholar
  134. Sarin A, Nakajima H, Henkart PA (1995) A protease-dependent TCR-induced death pathway in mature lymphocytes. J Immunol 154:5806–5812PubMedGoogle Scholar
  135. Schulz JB, Weiler M, Klockgether T (1996) Potassium deprivation-induced apoptosis of cerebellar granule neurons: a sequential requirement for new mRNA, protein synthesis, ICE-like protease activity, reactive oxygen species. J Neurosci 16:4696–4706PubMedGoogle Scholar
  136. Scott RJ, Hegyi L (1997) Cell death in perinatal hypoxic-ischaemic brain injury. Neuropathol. Appl Neurobiol 23:307–314PubMedGoogle Scholar
  137. Shinohara K, Tomioka M, Nakano H, Tone S, Ito H, Kawashima S (1996) Apoptosis induction resulting from proteasome inhibition. Biochem J 317:385–388PubMedGoogle Scholar
  138. Shirvan A, Ziv I, Zilkha-Falb R, Machlyn T, Barzilai A, Melamed E (1998) Expression of cell cycle-related genes during neuronal apoptosis: is there a distinct pattern? Neurochem Res 23:767–777PubMedGoogle Scholar
  139. Sidoti-de Fraisse C, Rincheval V, Risler Y, Mignotte B, Vayssiere JL (1998) TNF-α activates at least two apoptotic signaling cascades. Oncogene 17:1639–1651PubMedGoogle Scholar
  140. Silos-Santiago I, Greenlund LJ, Johnson E JR, Snider WD (1995) Molecular genetics of neuronal survival. Curr Opin Neurobiol 5:42–49PubMedGoogle Scholar
  141. Sipe KJ, Srisawasdi D, Dantzer R, Kelley KW, Weyhenmeyer JA (1996) An endogenous 55 kDa TNF receptor mediates cell death in a neural cell line. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 38:222–232PubMedGoogle Scholar
  142. Squier MK, Miller AC, Malkinson AM, Cohen JJ (1994) Calpain activation in apopto-sis. J Cell Physiol 159:229–237PubMedGoogle Scholar
  143. Srinivasula SM, Ahmad M, Fernandes-Alnemri T, Alnemri ES (1998) Autoactivation of procaspase-9 by Apaf-1-mediated oligomerization. Mol Cell 1:949–957PubMedGoogle Scholar
  144. Stefanis L, Troy CM, Qi H, Shelanski ML, Greene LA (1998) Caspase-2 (Nedd-2) processing, death of trophic factor-deprived PC12 cells, sympathetic neurons occur independently of caspase-3 (CPP32)- like activity. J Neurosci 18:9204–9215PubMedGoogle Scholar
  145. Stennicke HR, Jurgensmeier JM, Shin H, Deveraux Q, Wolf BB, Yang X, Zhou Q, Ellerby HM, Ellerby LM, Bredesen D, Green DR, Reed JC, Froelich CJ, Salvesen GS (1998) Procaspase-3 is a major physiologic target of caspase-8. J Biol Chem 273:27084–27090PubMedGoogle Scholar
  146. Su JH, Deng G, Cotman CW (1997) Bax protein expression is increased in Alzheimer’s brain: correlations with DNA damage, Bcl-2 expression, brain pathology. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 56:86–93PubMedGoogle Scholar
  147. Tamm I, Wang Y, Sausville E, Scudiero DA, Vigna N, Oltersdorf T, Reed JC (1998) IAP-family protein survivin inhibits caspase activity, apoptosis induced by Fas (CD95), Bax, caspases, anticancer drugs. Cancer Res 58:5315–5320PubMedGoogle Scholar
  148. Tan S, Sagara Y, Liu Y, Maher P, Schubert D (1998a) The regulation of reactive oxygen species production during programmed cell death. J Cell Biol 141:1423–1432PubMedGoogle Scholar
  149. Tan S, Wood M, Maher P (1998b) Oxidative stress induces a form of programmed cell death with characteristics of both apoptosis, necrosis in neuronal cells. J Neurochem 71:95–105PubMedGoogle Scholar
  150. Thornberry NA, Lazebnik Y (1998) Caspases: enemies within. Science 281:1312–1316PubMedGoogle Scholar
  151. Troost D, Aten J, Morsink F, de Jong JM (1995) Apoptosis in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is not restricted to motor neurons. Bcl-2 expression is increased in unaffected post-central gyrus. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 21:498–504PubMedGoogle Scholar
  152. Trump BF, Berezesky IK, Chang SH, Phelps PC (1997) The pathways of cell death: oncosis, apoptosis, and necrosis. Toxicol Pathol 25:82–88.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  153. Uno H, Matsuyama T, Akita H, Nishimura H, Sugita M (1997) Induction of tumor necrosis factor-α in the mouse hippocampus following transient forebrain ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 17:491–499PubMedGoogle Scholar
  154. Van Antwerp DJ, Martin SJ, Kafri T, Green DR, Verma IM (1996) Suppression of TNF-α-induced apoptosis by NF-κB. Science 274:787–789PubMedGoogle Scholar
  155. Vanags DM, Porn-Ares MI, Coppola S, Burgess DH, Orrenius S (1996) Protease involvement in fodrin cleavage, phosphatidylserine exposure in apoptosis. J Biol Chem 271:31075–31085PubMedGoogle Scholar
  156. Velasco E, Valero C, Valero A, Moreno F Hernandez-Chico C(1996) Molecular analysis of the SMN, NAIP genes in Spanish spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) families, correlation between number of copies of cBCD541, SMA phenotype. Hum Mol Genet 5:257–263PubMedGoogle Scholar
  157. Villalba M, Bockaert J, Journot L (1997) Concomitant induction of apoptosis, necrosis in cerebellar granule cells following serum, potassium withdrawal. Neuroreport 8:981–985PubMedGoogle Scholar
  158. Viviani B, Corsini E, Galli CL, Marinovich M (1998) Glia increase degeneration of hippocampal neurons through release of tumor necrosis factor-α. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 150:271–276PubMedGoogle Scholar
  159. Wang CY, Mayo MW, Baldwin A, JR (1996) TNF-, cancer therapy-induced apoptosis: potentiation by inhibition of NF-κB. Science 274:784–787PubMedGoogle Scholar
  160. Wang CY, Mayo MW, Korneluk RG, Goeddel DV, Baldwin A, JR (1998) NF κB anti-apoptosis: induction of TRAF1, TRAF2, c-IAP1, c-IAP2 to suppress caspase 8 activation. Science 281:1680–1683PubMedGoogle Scholar
  161. Wang KKW (2000) Calpain and Caspase: Can You Tell the Difference. Trends Neurosci 23:20–26PubMedGoogle Scholar
  162. Wang KK, Posmantur R, Nath R, McGinnis K, Whitton M, Talanian RV, Glantz SB, Morrow JS (1998) Simultaneous degradation of αII-, βII-spectrin by caspase 3 (CPP32) in apoptotic cells. J Biol Chem 273:22490–22497PubMedGoogle Scholar
  163. Watson A, Eilers A, Lallemand D, Kyriakis J, Rubin LL, Ham J (1998) Phosphorylation of c-Jun is necessary for apoptosis induced by survival signal withdrawal in cerebellar granule neurons. J Neurosci 18:751–762PubMedGoogle Scholar
  164. Wu M, Lee H, Bellas RE, Schauer SL, Arsura M, Katz D, FitzGerald MJ, Rothstein TL, Sherr DH, Sonenshein GE (1996) Inhibition of NF-κB/Rel induces apoptosis of murine B cells. Embo J 15:4682–4690PubMedGoogle Scholar
  165. Wullner U, Weiler M, Schulz JB, Krajewski S, Reed JC, Klockgether T (1998) Bcl-2, Bax, Bcl-x expression in neuronal apoptosis: a study of mutant weaver, lurcher mice. Acta Neuropathol 96:233–238PubMedGoogle Scholar
  166. Xu DG, Crocker SJ, Doucet JP, St-Jean M, Tamai K, Hakim AM, Iked JE, Liston P, Thompson CS, Korneluk RG, MacKenzie A, Robertson GS (1997) Elevation of neuronal expression of NAIP reduces ischemic damage in the rat hippocampus. Nat Med 3:997–1004PubMedGoogle Scholar
  167. Yaffe MB, Rittinger K, Volinia S, Caron PR, Aitken A, Leffers H, Gamblin SJ, Smerdon SJ, Cantley LC (1997) The structural basis for 14–3–3: phosphopeptide binding specificity. Cell 91:961–971PubMedGoogle Scholar
  168. Yakovlev AG, Knoblach SM, Fan L, Fox GB, Goodnight R, Faden AI (1997) Activation of CPP32-like caspases contributes to neuronal apoptosis, neurological dysfunction after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci 17:7415–7424PubMedGoogle Scholar
  169. Yang GY, Gong C, Qin Z, Ye W, Mao Y, Bertz AL (1998) Inhibition of TNFα attenuates infarct volume, ICAM-1 expression in ischemic mouse brain. Neuroreport 9:2131–2134PubMedGoogle Scholar
  170. Yano S, Tokumitsu H, Soderling TR (1998) Calcium promotes cell survival through CaM K kinase activation of the protein-kinase-B pathway. Nature 396:584–587PubMedGoogle Scholar
  171. Yao R, Cooper GM (1995) Requirement for phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase in the prevention of apoptosis by nerve growth factor. Science 267:2003–2006PubMedGoogle Scholar
  172. Zhang Q, Ahuja HS, Zakeri ZF, Wolgemuth DJ (1997) Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 is associated with apoptotic cell death during development, tissue remodeling. Dev Biol 183:222–233PubMedGoogle Scholar
  173. Zhang J, Price JO, Graham DG, Montine TJ (1998) Secondary excitotoxicity contributes to dopamine-induced apoptosis of dopaminergic neuronal cultures. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 248:812–816PubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2002

Authors and Affiliations

  • K. K. W. Wang

There are no affiliations available

Personalised recommendations