STIs in Pediatrics, Perinatology and Reproduction

Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

The incidence of many sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in women, including Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, is greatest among those under the age of 25 years, a time when many women may become pregnant.

Keywords

Ectopic Pregnancy Bacterial Vaginosis Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Genital Wart Chlamydial Infection 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1.  1.
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 2004. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA (2005)Google Scholar
  2.  2.
    Speroff, L., Fritz, M.A.: Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility, 7th edn, p. 1013. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia (2005)Google Scholar
  3.  3.
    Westrom, L.: Effect of pelvic inflammatory disease on fertility. Venereology 8, 219–222 (1995)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  4.  4.
    Westrom, L., Joesoef, R., Reynolds, G., Hagdu, A., Thompson, S.E.: Pelvic inflammatory disease and fertility. A cohort study of 1844 women with laparoscopically verified disease and 657 control women with normal laparoscopic results. Sex. Transm. Dis. 19, 185–192 (1992)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  5.  5.
    Hillis, S.D., Joesoef, R., Marchbanks, P.A., Wasserheit, J.N., Cates, W., Westrom, L.: Delayed care of pelvic inflammatory disease as a risk factor for impaired fertility. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 168(5), 1503–1539 (1993)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  6.  6.
    World Health Organization Task Force on the Prevention and Management of Infertility: Tubal infertility: Serologic relationship to post chlamydial and gonococcal infection. Sex. Transm. Dis. 22, 71–77 (1995)Google Scholar
  7.  7.
    Tijam, K.H., Zeilmaker, G.H., Alberda, A.T., et al.: Prevalence of antibodies to Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Mycoplasma hominis in infertile women. Genitourin. Med. 61, 175–178 (1985)Google Scholar
  8.  8.
    Miettinen, A., Heinonen, P.K., Teisala, K., Hakkarainen, K., Punnonen, R.: Serologic evidence for the role of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Mycoplasma hominis in the etiology of tubal factor infertility and ectopic pregnancy. Sex. Transm. Dis. 17, 10–14 (1990)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  9.  9.
    Kosseim, M., Brunham, R.C.: Fallopian tube obstruction as a sequela to Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 5, 584 (1986)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Svensson, L., Mardh, P.A., Ahlgren, M., Nordenskjold, M.: Ectopic pregnancy and antibodies to Chlamydia trachomatis. Fertil. Steril. 44, 313 (1985)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Rowland, G.F., Moss, T.R.: In vitro fertilization, previous ectopic pregnancy, and Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Lancet 2, 830 (1985)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Robertson, J.N., Hogston, P., Ward, M.E.: Gonococcal and chlamydial antibodies in ectopic and intrauterine pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 95, 711–716 (1988)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Suzuki, K., Tomasi, T.B.: Immune responses during pregnancy: Evidence of suppressor cells for splenic antibody response. J. Exp. Med. 150, 898 (1979)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Ayra, O.P., et al.: Epidemiological and clinical correlates of chlamydial infection of the cervix. Br. J. Vener. Dis. 57, 118 (1981)Google Scholar
  15. 15.
    Singer, A.: The uterine cervix from adolescence to the menopause. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 82, 81 (1975)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Larsen, B., Galask, R.P.: Vaginal microbial flora: Practical and theoretic relevance. Obstet. Gynecol. 55(Suppl 5), 1005 (1980)Google Scholar
  17. 17.
    Hillier, S.L., et al.: Case control study of chorioamnionic infection and chorioamnionitis in prematurity. N. Engl. J. Med. 319, 972 (1988)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Cooperstock, M., et al.: Circadian incidence of labor onset hour in preterm birth and chorioamnionitis. Obstet. Gynecol. 70, 852–855 (1987)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Guzick, D.S., Winn, K.: The association of chorioamnionitis with preterm delivery. Obstet. Gynecol. 65, 11–15 (1985)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Russel, P.: Inflammatory lesions of the human placenta. 1: Clinical significance of acute chorioamnionitis. Am. J. Diagn. Gynecol. Obstet. 1, 127 (1979)Google Scholar
  21. 21.
    Weibel, D.R., Randall Jr., H.W.: Evaluation of amniotic fluid in preterm labor with intact membranes. J. Reprod. Med. 30, 777–780 (1985)Google Scholar
  22. 22.
    Skoll, M.A., et al.: The incidence of positive amniotic fluid cultures in patients in preterm labor with intact membranes. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 161, 813–816 (1989)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Romero, R., et al.: Infection and labor. V: Prevalence, microbiology, and clinical significance of intraamniotic infection in women with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 161, 317–324 (1989)Google Scholar
  24. 24.
    Gravett, M.G., et al.: An experimental model for intraamniotic infection and preterm labor in rhesus monkeys. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 171, 1660–1667 (1994)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Witkin, S.S., et al.: Induction of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in rhesus monkeys after intraamniotic infection with group B streptococci or interleukin-1 infection. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 171, 1668–1672 (1994)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Hitti, J., et al.: Amniotic fluid infection, cytokines, and adverse outcome among infants at 34 weeks’ gestation or less. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 98, 1080–1088 (2001)Google Scholar
  27. 27.
    Martinez, E., et al.: Elevated amniotic fluid interleukin-6 as a predictor of neonatal periventricular leukomalacia and intraventricular hemorrhage. J. Matern. Fetal Investig. 8, 101–107 (1998)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Gravett, M.G., et al.: Independent associations of bacterial vaginosis and Chlamydia trachomatis infections with adverse pregnancy outcome. JAMA 256, 1899 (1986)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Minkoff, H., et al.: Risk factors for prematurity and premature rupture of membranes: A prospective study of vaginal flora in pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 150, 965–972 (1984)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Kurki, T., et al.: Bacterial vaginosis in early pregnancy and pregnancy outcome. Obstet. Gynecol. 80, 173–177 (1992)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Hay, P.E., et al.: A longitudinal study of bacterial vaginosis during pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 101, 1048–1053 (1994)Google Scholar
  32. 32.
    Hauth, J.C., et al.: Reduced incidence of preterm delivery with metronidazole and erythromycin in women with bacterial vaginosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 333, 1732–1736 (1995)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    McDonald, H.M., et al.: Impact of metronidazole therapy on preterm birth in women with bacterial vaginosis flora (Gardnerella vaginalis): A randomized, placebo controlled trial. Br. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 104, 1391–1397 (1997)Google Scholar
  34. 34.
    Cotch, M.F., et al.: Trichomonas vaginalis associated with low birth weight and preterm delivery. Sex. Transm. Dis. 24, 1–8 (1997)Google Scholar
  35. 35.
    McGregor, J.A., et al.: Bacterial protease-induced reduction of chorioamniotic membrane strength and elasticity. Obstet. Gynecol. 69, 167–174 (1987)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Shoonmaker, J.N., et al.: Bacteria and inflammation cells reduce chorioamniotic membrane integrity and tensile strength. Obstet. Gynecol. 74, 590–596 (1989)Google Scholar
  37. 37.
    Sbarra, A.J., et al.: Effect of bacterial growth on the bursting pressure of fetal membranes in vitro. Obstet. Gynecol. 70, 107–110 (1987)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Draper, D., et al.: Trichomonas vaginalis weakens human amniochorion in an in vitro model of premature membrane rupture. Infect. Dis. Obstet. Gynecol. 2, 267–274 (1995)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Dorfman, D.H., Glaser, J.H.: Congenital syphilis presenting in infants after the newborn period. N. Engl. J. Med. 323(19), 1299–1302 (1990)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Sanchez, P.J., Wendel, G.D., Norgard, M.V.: Congenital syphilis associated with negative results of maternal serological tests at delivery. Am. J. Dis. Child. 145(9), 967–969 (1991)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Benirschke, K.: Syphilis – the placenta and the fetus. Am. J. Dis. Child. 128(2), 142–143 (1974)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Beck, A., Dailey, W.: Syphilis in pregnancy. Pub. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 6(101), 101–110 (1938)Google Scholar
  43. 43.
    Qureshi, F., Jacques, S.M., Reyes, M.P.: Placental histopathology in syphilis. Hum. Pathol. 24(7), 779–784 (1993)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Peeling, R.W., Hook III, E.W.: The pathogenesis of syphilis: The Great Mimicker, revisited. J. Pathol. 208(2), 224–232 (2006)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Thomas, D.D., Navab, M., Haake, D.A., Fogelman, A.M., Miller, J.N., Lovett, M.A.: Treponema pallidum invades intercellular junctions of endothelial cell monolayers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85(10), 3608–3612 (1988)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Mascuta, L., et al.: Congenital syphilis: Why is it still occurring? JAMA 252, 1719 (1984)Google Scholar
  47. 47.
    Fiumara, N.J., Fleming, W.L., Downing, J.G., Good, F.L.: The incidence of prenatal syphilis at the Boston City Hospital. N. Engl. J. Med. 247(2), 48–52 (1952)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Russel, P., Altshuler, G.: Placental abnormalities of congenital syphilis: A neglected aid to diagnosis. Am. J. Dis. Child. 128(2), 160–163 (1974)Google Scholar
  49. 49.
    McCord, J.: Syphilis of the placenta: The histological examination of 1,085 placentas of mothers with strongly positive Wasserman reactions. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 28, 743 (1934)Google Scholar
  50. 50.
    Sheffield, J.S., Sanchez, P.J., Wendel Jr., G.D., et al.: Placental histopathology of congenital syphilis. Obstet. Gynecol. 100(1), 126–133 (2002)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Nabarro, D.: Congenital Syphilis. E. Arnold, London (1954)Google Scholar
  52. 52.
    Brown, W.J., Moore Jr., M.B.: Congenital syphilis in the United States. Clin. Pediatr. (Phila) 2, 220–222 (1963)Google Scholar
  53. 53.
    Ingraham, N.R.: The diagnosis of congenital syphilis during the period of doubt. Am. J. Syph. Neurol. 19, 547 (1935)Google Scholar
  54. 54.
    Oppenheimer, E.H., Hardy, J.B.: Congenital syphilis in the newborn infant: Clinical and pathological observations in recent cases. Johns Hopkins Med. J. 129(2), 63–82 (1971)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Stokes, J., et al.: Modern Clinical Syphilology. WB Saunders, Philadelphia (1934)Google Scholar
  56. 56.
    Alger, L.S., et al.: The association of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and group B streptococci with preterm rupture of membranes and pregnancy outcome. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 159, 397–404 (1988)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Donders, G.G., et al.: The association of gonorrhea and syphilis with premature birth and low birth weight. Genitourin. Med. 69, 98–101 (1993)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Elliott, B., et al.: Maternal gonococcal infection as a preventable risk factor for low birth weight. J. Infect. Dis. 161, 531–536 (1990)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Israel, K.S., Rissing, K.B., Brooks, G.F.: Neonatal and childhood gonococcal infections. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 18, 143 (1975)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Edwards, L., Barrada, M.I., Hamann, A.A., et al.: Gonorrhea in pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 132, 637 (1978)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Rothbard, M.J., Gregory, T., Salerno, L.J.: Intrapartum gonococcal amnionitis. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 121, 565 (1975)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Neinstein, L.S., Golfenring, J., Carpenter, S.: Nonsexual transmission of sexually transmitted diseases: An infrequent occurrence. Pediatrics 74, 67 (1984)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Kellogg, N., Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect: The evaluation of sexual abuse in children. Pediatrics 116, 506 (2005)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Laga, M., et al.: Epidemiology of ophthalmia neonatorum in Kenya. Lancet 2, 1145 (1986)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Laga, M., et al.: Prophylaxis of gonococcal and chlamydial ophthalmia neonatorum: A comparison of silver nitrate and tetracycline. N. Engl. J. Med. 318, 653 (1988)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Hammerschlag, M.R., et al.: Efficacy of neonatal ocular prophylaxis for the prevention of chlamydial and gonococcal conjunctivitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 320, 769–772 (1989)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Hompson, T.R., et al.: Gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum: Relationship of time of infection to relevant control measures. JAMA 228, 186 (1974)Google Scholar
  68. 68.
    Handsfield, H.H., Hodson, W.A., Holmes, K.K.: Neonatal gonococcal infection. 1. Orogastric contamination with Neisseria gonorrhoeae. JAMA 225, 697 (1973)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Barton, L.L., Shuja, M.: Neonatal gonococcal vaginitis. J. Pediatr. 98, 171 (1981)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Desenclos, J.C.A., Garrity, D., Scaggs, M., et al.: Gonococcal infection of the newborn in Florida, 1984–1989. Sex. Transm. Dis. 19, 105 (1992)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Hunter, G.W., Fargo, N.D.: Specific urethritis (gonorrhea) in a male newborn. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 38, 520 (1939)Google Scholar
  72. 72.
    Kirkland, H., Storer, R.V.: Gonococcal rhinitis in an infant. Br. Med. J. 1, 263 (1931)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Angevine, C.D., Hall, C.B., Jacox, R.F.: A case of gonococcal osteomyelitis. A complication of gonococcal arthritis. Am. J. Dis. Child. 130, 1013 (1976)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Cooperman, M.B.: Gonococcus arthritis in infancy. Am. J. Dis. Child. 33, 932 (1927)Google Scholar
  75. 75.
    Kohen, D.P.: Neonatal gonococcal arthritis: Three cases and review of the literature. Pediatrics 53, 436 (1974)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Thadepalli, H., Rambhatla, K., Maidman, J.E., et al.: Gonococcal sepsis secondary to fetal monitoring. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 126, 510 (1976)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Ingram, G.L., Everett, N.O., Lyna, P.R., et al.: Epidemiology of adult sexually transmitted disease agents in children being evaluated for sexual abuse. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 11, 945 (1992)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Harrison, H.R., et al.: Cervical Chlamydia trachomatis and mycoplasmal infections: Epidemiology and outcomes. JAMA 250, 1721–1727 (1983)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Martin, D.H., et al.: Prematurity and perinatal mortality in pregnancies complicated by maternal Chlamydia trachomatis infections. JAMA 247, 1585 (1982)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Sweet, R.L., et al.: Chlamydia trachomatis infection and pregnancy outcome. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 156, 824 (1987)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Hammerschlag, M.R.: Infections due to Chlamydia trachomatis and Chlamydia pneumoniae in children and adolescents. Pediatr. Rev. 25, 43 (2004)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Hammerschlag, M.R.: Chlamydia Infections. In: Feigen, R.D., Cherry, J.D., Demmler, G.J., et al. (eds.) Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, 5th edn. Saunders, Philadelphia (2004)Google Scholar
  83. 83.
    Bell, T.A., Stamm, W.E., Kuo, C.C., et al.: Risk of perinatal transmission of Chlamydia trachomatis by mode of delivery. J. Infect. 29, 165 (1994)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  84.  84.
    Bell, T.A., Stamm, W.E., Wang, S.P., et al.: Chronic Chlamydia trachomatis infections in infants. JAMA 267, 400 (1992)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Hammerschlag, M.R., Chandler, J.W., Alexander, E.R., et al.: Longitudinal studies of chlamydial infection in the first year of life. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 1, 395 (1982)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Tipple, M.A., Beem, M.O., Saxon, E.M.: Clinical characteristics of the afebrile pneumonia associated with Chlamydia trachomatis infection in infants less than 6 months of age. Pediatrics 63, 192 (1979)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Beck-Sague, C.M., Solomon, F.: Sexually transmitted diseases in abused children and adolescent and adult victims of rape. Clin. Infect. Dis. 28(suppl 1), S74 (1999)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Fowler, K.B., et al.: The outcome of congenital cytomegalovirus infection in relation to maternal antibody status. N. Engl. J. Med. 326, 663–667 (1992)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Stagno, S., et al.: Congenital cytomegalovirus infection: Occurrence in an immune population. N. Engl. J. Med. 1254, 296 (1977)Google Scholar
  90. 90.
    Stagno, S., et al.: Congenital cytomegalovirus infection: The relative importance of primary and recurrent maternal infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 945, 306 (1982)Google Scholar
  91. 91.
    Pass, R.F., et al.: Outcome of symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus infection: Results of long-term longitudinal follow-up. Pediatrics 758, 66 (1980)Google Scholar
  92. 92.
    Stagno, S., et al.: Breast milk and risk of cytomegalovirus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1073, 302 (1980)Google Scholar
  93. 93.
    Hamprecht, K., et al.: Epidemiology of transmission of cytomegalovirus from mother to preterm infant by breastfeeding. Lancet 513, 357 (2001)Google Scholar
  94. 94.
    Meier, J., Lienicke, U., Tschirch, E., Kruger, D.H., Wauer, R.R., Prosch, S.: Human cytomegalovirus reactivation during lactation and mother-to-child transmission in preterm infants. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43, 1318 (2005)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Doctor, S., et al.: Cytomegalovirus transmission to extremely low birthweight infants through breast milk. Acta Paediatr. 53, 94 (2005)Google Scholar
  96. 96.
    Boucher, F.D., et al.: A prospective evaluation of primary genital herpes simplex virus type 2 infections acquired during pregnancy. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 499, 9 (1990)Google Scholar
  97. 97.
    Frenkel, L.M., et al.: Clinical reactivation of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in seropositive pregnant women with no history of genital herpes. Ann. Intern. Med. 414, 118 (1993)Google Scholar
  98. 98.
    Brown, Z.A., et al.: The acquisition of herpes simplex virus during pregnancy. N. Engl. J. Med. 509, 337 (1997)Google Scholar
  99. 99.
    Lafferty, W.E., et al.: Herpes simplex virus type 1 as a cause of genital herpes: Impact on surveillance and prevention. J. Infect. Dis. 1454, 181 (2000)Google Scholar
  100. 100.
    Whitley, R., et al.: A controlled trial comparing vidarabine with acyclovir in neonatal herpes simplex virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 324, 444–449 (1991)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Nahmias, A.J., et al.: Perinatal risk associated with maternal genital herpes simplex virus infection. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 825, 100 (1971)Google Scholar
  102. 102.
    Brown, Z.A., et al.: Effects on infants of a first episode of genital herpes during pregnancy. N. Engl. J. Med. 1246, 317 (1987)Google Scholar
  103. 103.
    Arvin, A., et al.: Failure of antepartum maternal cultures to predict the infant’s risk of exposure to herpes simplex virus at delivery. N. Engl. J. Med. 796, 315 (1986)Google Scholar
  104. 104.
    Brown, Z.A., et al.: Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection in relation to asymptomatic maternal infection at the time of labor. N. Engl. J. Med. 1247, 324 (1991)Google Scholar
  105. 105.
    Prober, C.G., et al.: Low risk of herpes simplex virus infection in neonates exposed to the virus at the time of vaginal delivery to mothers with recurrent genital herpes simplex virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 240, 316 (1987)Google Scholar
  106. 106.
    Brown, Z.A., et al.: Asymptomatic maternal shedding of herpes simplex virus at the onset of labor: Relationship to preterm labor. Obstet. Gynecol. 483, 87 (1996)Google Scholar
  107. 107.
    Koutsky, L.A.: Epidemiology of genital human papillomavirus infection. Am. J. Med. 3, 102 (1997)Google Scholar
  108. 108.
    Fife, K.H., et al.: Cervical human papillomavirus deoxyribonucleic acid persists throughout pregnancy and decreases in the postpartum period. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1110, 180 (1999)Google Scholar
  109. 109.
    Nobbenhuis, M.A.E., et al.: High-risk human papillomavirus clearance in pregnant women: Trends for lower clearance during pregnancy with a catch-up postpartum. Br. J. Cancer 75, 87 (2002)Google Scholar
  110. 110.
    Ziegler, A., Kastner, C., Chang-Claude, J.: Analysis of pregnancy and other factors on detection of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection using weighted estimating equations for follow-up data. Stat. Med. 2217, 22 (2003)Google Scholar
  111. 111.
    Hernandez-Giron, C., et al.: High-risk human papillomavirus detection and related risk factors among pregnant and nonpregnant women in Mexico. Sex. Transm. Dis. 613, 32 (2005)Google Scholar
  112. 112.
    Sinal, S.H., Woods, C.R.: Human papillomavirus infections of the genital and respiratory tracts in young children. Semin. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 306, 16 (2005)Google Scholar
  113. 113.
    Reeves, W.C., et al.: National registry for juvenile respiratory papillomatosis. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 976, 129 (2003)Google Scholar
  114. 114.
    Syrjanen, S., Puranen, M.: Human papillomavirus infections in children: The potential role of maternal transmission. Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med. 259, 11 (2000)Google Scholar
  115. 115.
    Gissmann, L., et al.: Human papillomavirus types 6 and 11 DNA sequences in genital and laryngeal papillomas and in some cervical cancers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 560, 80 (1983)Google Scholar
  116. 116.
    Aguilera-Barrantes, I., Magro, C., Nuovo, G.J.: Verruca vulgaris of the vulva in children and adults: A nonvenereal type of vulvar wart. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 31(4), 529–535 (2007)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    Doerfler, D., Bernhaus, A., Kottmel, A., Sam, C., Koelle, D., Joura, E.A.: Human papilloma virus infection prior to coitarche. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 200(5), 487.e1–487.e5 (2009)Google Scholar
  118. 118.
    Govan, V.A.: A novel vaccine for cervical cancer: Quadrivalent human papillomavirus (types 6, 11, 16 and 18) recombinant vaccine (Gardasil). Ther. Clin. Risk Manag. 4(1), 65–70 (2008)PubMedGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Prescribing Insert, Gardasil®,Whitehouse Station, NJ, USA: Merck & Co. 2008.Google Scholar
  120. 120.
    Prescribing Insert, Cervarix®, Rixensart, Belgium: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals. 2007.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2011

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.School of MedicineUniversity of Texas Medical School at HoustonHoustonUSA
  2. 2.Center for Clinical Studies, Loyola University Medical Center, Division of DermatologyMaywoodUSA

Personalised recommendations